2012 August 22 Dennis Lunarian Questioning about Racism and Culture....SNPA Dictionary

Dennis Lunarian and SNPA Glossary.
I know this Glossary many years ago...this dictionary has almost all ethno-anthropological terms and I wanted to remember my occupation to Anthropology and Races. This search was if the Race Science is correct...I am still searching....I have some things to say about racism..that I stay in Canada a generally open society but still certain races choose to make company with their own...that's why I am questioning about Racism and Liberal Society...this difference is cultural or racial?

That's the SNPA Dictionary...Conclusions are yours...

A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   J   K   L

A
ACANTHION
= subnasale.
ACCLIMATIZATION
Physiological response to changes in the environment that occurs during an individual's lifetime; such responses may be short-term. The capacity for acclimatization may typify an entire population orspecies. This capacity is under genetic influence and thus is subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection.
ACHONDROPLASTIC DWARF
The most commonly occurring dwarf, characterized by short limbs, a large head, a small face with a depressed nose bridge, a normal trunk and squat hands. Cf. ateliotic dwarf.
ADAPTATION
Functional response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptation results from evolutionary change (specifically, as a result of natural selection).
ADAPTIVE
Trait that enhances survival and reproductive success in a particular environment (an adaptive zone).
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
The evolution of a single stock into a number of different species.
ADAPTIVE ZONE
A particular type of environment requiring unique adaptations, allowing adaptive radiation to occur.
ADRIATIC
= Dinarid, in Deniker's typology.
AEGYPTID
In the typology of Lundman, a variety of East-Mediterranid described as "very closely related to the Saharid, but with a high frequency of blood type gene q."
AETA
A people of Negritos (members of the Negritid race) indigenous to the Philippines. They are pygmy-sized, with dark chocolate brown skin, tightly curled black hair, very little body hair, flat,hyperplatyrrhine noses, medium-thick lips, and dark brown or black eyes. They are brachycephalic, with mean cephalic indices of 82 (for men) and 86 (for women), and there is little prognathism. The Aetaare similar in most respects to the Semang of the Malay Peninsula and the Andamanese (Andamanid subtype of Negritid) of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Aeta of Negritid type
(from the Fischer
Lexikon)
AETHIOPID (Hamitic (Günther))
Negrid subtype of northeastern Africa. Aethiopids are dolichocephalic, tall and slender, with generally narrow features, highly variable skin color and hair texture. The nose is high and narrow, and not seldom convex, and the chin is often strong. Whether these arguably Europoid features of the Aethiopid physique are the result of significant Europid (Mediterranid, Arabid) influence, or of divergence within the Negrid stock, is a much debated and so far unresolved issue.

Aethiopid (Iman)
AFALOU BOU RUMMEL
A series of skulls excavated at Afalou bou Rummel in Algeria. The skulls are robust, and characterized by brachycephaly, broad- and large-headedness, a low, square face, great bigonial breadth, and a general resemblance to European Cro-Magnoids (they are not unlike the semi-alpinized Borreby crania). Afalou bou Rummel is usually referred to merely as Afalou.

Afalou bou Rummel
AFGHANIAN
The prehistoric skeletal type, so named by Coon, which is reflected in the living Iranid type (Coon's Irano-Afghan race).
AFRICAN REPLACEMENT HYPOTHESIS
= Out of Africa Hypothesis.
AFRICOID
= Negrid.
AINUID (Ainoid; Kurilid)
Special type which constitutes a racial substrate in the Japanese population; it is, or rather was, typified by the Ainu people of Hokkaido, South Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands. Ainuids are small-statured and stocky, with broad faces, wide noses, and notable body hair growth. They are sundadonts, and are not considered Mongolid. Their exact affiliation is the subject of much discussion, but the initial suggestion that they are Europids seems to be contradicted by more recent studies which reveal stronger affiliations with the Polynesids of southeast Asia and Polynesia. Cf. Amurian.

Ainuid (after Glowatzki)
AISTIN (Aisto-Nordid)
In Lundman's  typology, a tall, high-skulled Nordid type found in Estonia and western Finland.
ALAE
The lateral flaring walls of the nostril (sg. ala).
ALAR CURVATURE POINT (ac)
The most posterolateral point of the curvature of the base of the nasal alae.
ALAR LENGTH (ac-prn)
Measured between the alar curvature point and pronasale.
ALARE (al)
The most lateral point on the alae.
ALAR SURFACE LENGTH (ac-prn)
Measured between the alar curvature point and pronasale.
ALAR THICKNESS
= nostril floor width.
ALBINO
An individual totally deficient in pigmentation. This condition is known as albinism.
ALFÖLDI TYPE
The supposed type of the originally Turkic-speaking element in the Hungarian population.
ALLELE
Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on homologous chromosomes and thus govern the same trait. However, because they are different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait. The term is often used synonymously with gene.
ALLEN’S RULE
The biological rule, posited by Joel Asaph Allen in 1877, which states that endotherms (mammals and birds) from colder climates usually have shorter and bulkier limbs than the equivalent animals from warmer climates. This process is directly related to the retention (in cold climates) or loss (in warm climates) of heat, in that it effects the ratio of body mass to body surface. Cf. Bergmann's Rule,borealization.
ALLOMETRY
The study of the relative growth of a part of an organism in relation to the growth of the whole.
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
The “mode” of speciation by which a population splits into two (or more) geographically isolated groups, resulting in divergence and subsequent reproductive isolation (new biological species). Cf.peripheral isolate speciation.

Allopatric speciation
ALPINID (Ostisch ("Eastern", Günther); West-Alpinid; Western European (Deniker))
Named by Ripley (Alpine), the Alpinid is an important western and central European Europid type, short- to medium-statured, brachycephalic, characteristically round-headed and -featured, broad-faced, and of intermediate to dark pigmentation. Alpinids predominate in central parts of France, and are common in southern Germany (especially Bavaria) and the Alps. the central European Alpinid is probably derived from Cro-Magnoids through a process of alpinization (cf. Borreby, Gorid).

French Alpinid (from The Races of Europe by Carleton S. Coon)        Alpinid skull (after Günther)
ALPINIZATION
An evolutionary process or tendency involving reduction, brachycephalization and infantilization, possibly an adaption to a low energy, sedentary existence. Some alpinized or partially alpinized Europid populations (Alpinoids), are Alpinid, Borreby and Gorid.
ALPINOID
Any alpinized type, regardless of affiliation.
ALVEOLAR PROGNATHISM
Forward projection of the portions of the jaws that hold the teeth and their roots. Cf. prognathism.
ALVEOLARE (infradentale superius)
The lowest single point on the bony septum between the upper central incisors. This can be confused with infradentale, which is the comparable point between the lower central incisors. It is used to measure upper facial height.
ALVEOLON (alv)
The point on the hard palate where a line drawn through the most posterior points of the alveolar ridges crosses the midline.
ALVEON
= prosthion.
AMERICAN TROPICAL RACE
Roughly equivalent to Centralid, in the typology of Agassiz.
AMERIND
= Indianid.
AMPHINESIAN RACE
= Polynesid, in the typology of Huxley.
AMUR-SAKHALINID
Tungid subtype of the lower Amur river, Sakhalin Island, and the Kuril Islands, typified by the Nivkh (Gilyaks) and related peoples. It is distinguished from other Tungids (e.g. Taigid) by its stronger beard growth and appreciable prognathism. These traits could be indicative of mixture with Ainuids.

Nivkh (Gilyak) woman
of Amur-Sakhalinid type
AMURIAN
The suggested predecessor to the modern Ainuid type of Japan.
ANAGENESIS
The evolution of one species out of another by succession.
ANATOLID (Anadolid)
Mostly Armenoid blend with Mediterranid (mainly the old Cappadocid strain) which constitutes the prevalent racial type among the Turks (of Turkey). Anatolids are usually finer-featured, moreleptomorphic and somewhat longer-headed than Armenids proper.

Anatolid Turk
ANDAMANID (Mincopies (Huxley))
The pygmy-sized Negritid type of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal. Andamanids are slightly built and dark-skinned, with tightly curled hair, and are similar in most respects to the Semang of the Malay Peninsula and the Aeta of the Philippines, all members of the Negritid race. There are several more or less isolated tribes, such as the Onge, the Jarawa, the Great Andamanese and the Sentineli, which may be distinguished by certain (very minor) differences. For instance, the Sentineli (of North Sentinel Island) are slightly taller than the remainder of the group.

Andamanid Jarawa
ANDID
Indianid type. Andids are small, stocky meso-brachycephals of the Andes (Quechua, Araucanians), the Ecuadorian coast, Peru and Chile. They are characterized by particularly strong eye-folds (but not particularly Mongolid eye features), a striking medium-broad, relatively high-rooted straight or convex nose, smooth hair and medium brown to brown skin.

Andid (after Glowatzki)
ANGLO-SAXON
Special northwestern European type, identified by Coon, and traditionally associated with speakers of Western Germanic dialects (Frisians, Angles, Saxons etc.). The basic form is a Hallstatt Nordid altered through admixture of Cro-Magnid and additional Corded strains. The Anglo-Saxon type is found today in the British Isles, and is particularly frequent in southeastern England. It is closely related to the Friterpian variety, with which it shares recent (Germanic) origins (cf. Old Germanic Reihengräber Type). SNPA account here.

Anglo-Saxon (Michael
Caine)
ANNULAR CONSTRICTION
Artificial method of altering the head shape by the application of bands. Cf. cradling, positional plagiocephaly.
ANTERIOR
In front; located on or near the front, or on the ventral surface of the body.
ANTERIOR HEAD HEIGHT (v-n)
The distance between vertex and nasion, measured in the midline using double sliding calipers and a level.
ANTERIOR MANDIBULAR HEIGHT (sto-gn)
The distance between stomion and gnathion.
ANTHROPOMETRY
The physical-anthropological discipline concerned with the measurement of the bodily characters of human beings. Cf. cephalometry, craniometry.
APEX (ap)
The highest single point on the frontal section defined by left and right porion with the skull oriented to the Frankfort Horizontal Plane. The apex is posterior to bregma.
APICAL ANCESTOR
The ancestor or ancestress from which descent is traced (the "apex" of the triangle of descendants).
APOMORPHY
Novel evolutionary trait that is unique to a particular species and all its descendants and which can be used as a defining character for a species or group in phylogenetic terms. Cf. autapomorphy, synapomorphy.
APPALACID
The eastern subvariety of Silvid, prevalent along the North American east coast, especially Appalachia (e.g. the Mohicans and Delawares). Cf. Planid.
ARABID
Southern Orientalid type, primarily associated with Semitic-speaking populations of the Middle East, and typified by the Bedouin of Oman. Lundman distinguished a Syridsubvariety.

Arabid
ARALID
According to von Eickstedt's typology, the Aralid type is a Central Asiatic Turanid influenced by Tungid. Aralids constitute the principal element among the Kazakhs, and are common among the Uzbeks and the Uighurs.

Aralid (after Schwidetzky)
ARAN TYPE
An isolated and specialized type, indigenous to the Aran Islands, off the western Irish coast. It is ancestrally derived from a largely Keltic Nordid population. SNPA account here.

Aran type (from The
Races of Europe by
Carleton S. Coon)
ARBO, CARL OSCAR EUGEN
SNPA account here.
ARCTIC MONGOLID (Arctic Race (Agassiz); Arctid; Borealid)
Mongolid group of Siberia, the Chukotka-Kamchatka region of extreme northeastern Siberia, and most of habitable arctic North America and Greenland. Arctic Mongolids are distinguished a more pyknomorphic and muscular build, less facial flatness, wider mandible, lower frequency of epicanthus, thicker lips, mesognathy, a high and narrow nose, and very coarse hair. Arctic Mongolids comprise Eskimids and Sibirids.
ARCTIC RACE
= Arctic Mongolid (or merely Eskimid), in the typology of Agassiz.
ARCTID
= Arctic Mongolid.
ARCUS SENILIS
A deposit of fat in the cornea of the eye, which looks gray or blue and often creates a false impression of partial eye blondism.
ARMENID (Assyroid (Deniker); vorderasiatischer Typus ("Hither-Asiatic type", Günther))
Mostly brunet, large-headed Taurid type, first carefully described by von Luschan (as Armenoid). It resembles the European Dinarid, with the main exceptions of greater absolutefacial dimensions and a larger nose. Armenids are prevalent among Armenians, and common throughout the Middle East, where they blend with Arabids to produce an easily recognizable Middle Eastern phenotype (cf. Assyrid). According to Coon, the Armenid (Armenoid, in his typology) type is the result of dinaricization of Iranids (Irano-Afghans, in his typology). Cf. Anatolid, Caucasid.

Armenid (after          Armenid skull (after Günther)
Glowatzki)

ARMENOID
Near Eastern Taurid parafamily, pertaining to the Armenid (relatively unmixed Taurid), Anatolid (Mediterranid-mixed Armenid), Assyrid and Caucasid (Dinarid-mixed Armenid) types.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Selective breeding carried out by humans to alter a population, e.g. of dogs.
ASCENDING RAMUS
The paired portion of the jawbone which rises from the gonial region at the back of the tooth-bearing portion of the jaw to the condyle and coronoid process.
ASH-BLOND (cendré)
A class of hair-blondism in which rufosity is totally absent; ash-blond hair has a grayish or "platinum" appearance.

Ash-blond hair
ASIATIC ALPINOID
Generic term, denoting any alpinized extra-European Eurasian population.
ASSORTATIVE MATING
The tendency of like to mate with like. Mating can be assortative for a certain genotype (e.g., individuals with genotype AA tend to mate with other individuals of genotype AA) or phenotype (e.g., tall individuals mate with other tall individuals).
ASSYRID
Mostly Armenoid blend with Arabid, of moderate stature and rather heavy build.
ASSYROID
= Armenid, in Deniker's typology.
ASTERION (ast)
The point at which the sutures between the temporal, the parietal and the occipital bones meet.
ATAVISM
The reappearance of a characteristic in an organism after several generations of absence - a "throwback" - usually caused by the chance recombination of genes.
ATELIOTIC DWARF
A normally proportioned individual of unusually short stature. Cf. achondroplastic dwarf.
ATHERTON PLATEAU PYGMY
= Barrinean.
ATLANTID (Nordo-Mediterranid)
1) With reference to partially depigmented northern Mediterranids, as in von Eickstedt's 1935 publication "Die Mediterranen in Wales"; 2) A generic designation, of more recent popular reference, for the entire range of Nordid-Atlanto-Mediterranid/Mediterranid blends, typically of dark pigmentation, which may be found throughout western Europe, particularly along the coast. Cf. North-Atlantid.
ATLANTO-MEDITERRANID (Littoral European (Deniker))
Tall, straight-nosed and strongly dolichocephalic Mediterranid type, the living equivalent of the skeletal Megalithic type (in the typology of Coon). It is markedly taller and morerobust than the Gracile-Mediterranean type, by which it is outnumbered, and with which it is often mixed. The Atlanto-Mediterranid type is an important population element in the Iberian peninsula (prevailing in Catalonia and Valencia), in Italy, and northward along the western European coast, reaching the British Isles in mixed form (cf. North-Atlantid). Coonsubsumed all tall-statured Mediterranids (including Pontid) in the Atlanto-Mediterranid category.

Atlanto-Mediterranid
(after Biasutti)
AURICLE
The superficial ear or ear hole.
AURICULAR
Pertaining to the auricle.
AURICULARE (au)
Point on the lateral aspect of the root of the zygomatic process at the deepest incurvature, wherever it may be.
AURICULAR HEAD HEIGHT (v-po)
Measured with a head spanner. The distance between bregma and a line connecting the superior borders of the auditory meatus. The head spanner ideally has a device for orientation in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane. The two horizontal pieces fit into the ear openings (porion) and when the attachment is placed on the left orbitale, the auricular height is read directly when the calibrated bar is placed at the apex. If measuring skeletally, it should be noted that this measurement depends upon the presence of the face to locate the left orbitale. Porion-bregma height is similar to this measurement, and does not require the presence of the face.
AURIGNACID
General term, referring to Aurignacian contemporaries of Crô-Magnon characterized by e.g. narrower faces and more ellipsoidal skulls than the type(s) exemplified by the latter (Cro-Magnoid). Combe-Capelle is the primary example, and Capellid is sometimes used synonymously with Aurignacid.
AUSTRALIFORM
Resembling or approaching the Australid form in certain respects.
AUSTRALID (Homo sapiens australasicus; New Holland Race (Agassiz))
One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens; the type of the Australian Aborigines, including the semi-extinct Tasmanians. Like the Veddid race of South Asia, the Australid has retained much of the generalized Pleistocene sapiens morphology. It is characterized by a long, low and narrow head, a low, broad and oval face with a receding forehead, a strongly marked supraorbital region, a rather broad, typically concave nose springing from a deep nasion depression, and very strong prognathy. The eyeballs are deep-set, and the lips are thick. The skin ranges from brown to dark brown. Pilous growth is strong; the hair is usually wavy, sometimes frizzy, and typically dark brown or black, although lighter, more reddish tones do occur. The eyes are dark brown. Subtypes: Barrinean, Carpentarian, Murrayian, and Tasmanid.

Australid (from Coon,  Australid skull
The Origin of Races
(1962))
AUSTRALOID
A parafamily of dark-skinned Asian and Oceanic racial types, including primarily Australid, Veddid and Melanesid, all of which share a certain retention of generalized Pleistocene features.The exact relationship between these races is not entirely clear, and recent research indicates an a certain extent of diversity in origins, so the present grouping must be considered provisional.
AUSTRID
= Paleo-Mongolid.
AUTAPOMORPHY
An apomorphy unique to a single species.
AUTOSOMES
All chromosomes except the sex chromosomes.

B
BAIKAL
= Taigid.
BAKER, JOHN RANDAL
[entry pending]
BALANCE MODEL
Hypothesis of genetic variation proposing that balancing selection maintains large amounts of genetic variation within populations.
BALDWIN EFFECT
A theory of the American philosopher and psychologist James Mark Baldwin (1861 - 1934), in which a characteristic, such as individual learning, significantly affects the evolution of a particular species with respect to that characteristic.
BALTICIZATION
Evolutionary process involving reduction, infantilization, brachycephalization and gracilization. Balticization is similar to alpinization, but does not entail a similar degree of bodyreduction, and tends more towards borealization. Like alpinization, balticization may result partially from adaption to sedentary farmer life, but is mostly a response to a colder climate. More specifically, this tendency refers to the historical derivation of the Baltid types.
BALTID (Osteuropid (v. Eickstedt))
Balticized northeastern European Cro-Magnoid (East-Cro-Magnid). Baltid (proper) assumes an intermediate position between mostly unreduced, only slightly balticized and fully Europidforms (West-Baltids) and more fully balticized and Lappoid-influenced forms (East-Baltids) in a continuum or cline which, in a broader and rougher sense, delineates the transition from Cro-Magnoid to Lappoid in northeastern Europe. The term may denote the entire range, and is used interchangeably for mostly un-balticized West-Baltids as well as stronglyLappoid-influenced East-Baltids. SNPA account here.

Baltid (Russia)
BAMBUTID (African Pygmid)
The infantile Negrid type of the African Pygmies. The Bambutid type illustrates the effects of total reduction and partial infantilization, possibly resulting from adaption to an unfavourable tropical environment. The average stature is less than 1.5 m, and the trunk is very long in relation to the legs. The nose is notable for its excessive width, a feature in which the Bambutid exceeds all other human types.

Bambutid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
BANTUID
= Kafrid.
BARRINEAN (Atherton Plateau Pygmy; Queensland Negrito)
Australid subtype of North Queensland, distinguished by its exceptionally small stature, the result of a process of reduction (probably an in situ development). Barrineans are often referred to as "Australian pygmies" and sometimes confused with Negritids. They are associated by some with an alleged first wave of Australian aborigines, predating theMurrayians and Carpentarians.

Barrinean youth
BASION (ba)
The point where the anterior margin of the foramen magnum is intersected by the median sagittal plane. The point is located on the inner border of the anterior margin of theforamen magnum directly opposite of opisthion. In rare cases, the determination of the position of basion may be made difficult by a thickening of the anterior margin. In height measurements of the braincase, basion is positioned somewhat farther onto the underside of the margin of the foramen magnum (hypobasion), so that the observer may distinguish between an inferior and a posterior basion for reasons of convenience and technical demands.
BASION-BREGMA HEIGHT (ba-n)
The distance between basion and bregma, on the cranium. Place one end of the (spreading) calipers on basion, the other on bregma. If measuring skeletally, and  bregma is depressed (the sutures are much below the exterior surface of the vault), take the reading from the surface and not in the depression.

Basion-bregma height
BASION-PORION HEIGHT (ba-po)
Measured with coordinate calipers. Place the ends of the sliding calipers on the right and left porion. Move the coordinate -attachment until it is over basion and read basion-porion height from calibrated bar when tip of bar is placed on basion.

Measuring basion-porion
height using coordinate
calipers
BASION-PROSTHION LENGTH (ba-pr)
Measured with spreading or sliding calipers.

Basion-prosthion length
BASKID
Composite, dinariform, mostly Atlanto-Mediterranid type associated with the Basques.

Baskid
BATTLE-AXE TYPE
= Corded type.
BAUPLAN
The basic inter-related structural characteristics of a species.
BEDDOE, JOHN
(1826 - 1911) A British physician and anthropologist who published several of the earliest works on the living races, and who established himself as one of the first authorities on the subject. He was a founder member of the Ethnological Society, and President of the Anthropological Society (1869 – 70).
BELL BEAKER
A type of Early Bronze Age pottery characteristic of a culture which is believed to have arisen in Spain, and which had wide ramifications in western and central Europe.
BELL CURVE (normal probability curve)
A statistical phenomenon; the distribution curve which results under conditions of random sampling when frequencies of consecutive metrical categories are plotted in a significant biometric sample.
BERBERID
Cro-Magnoid type of North Africa, usually diluted by Mediterranid.

Berberid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
BERGMANN’S RULE
The biological rule, posited by Christian Bergmann (1814 - 1865), which states that within a species, the body mass increases with latitude and colder climate. Cf. Allen's Rule.
BERID (Paleo-Sardinian (Biasutti))
Low-skulled, pyknomorphic and somewhat reduced Mediterranid-Cro-Magnoid intermediate type.

Berid
BIACROMIAL DIAMETER
A measurement of the width of the shoulders (the acromion is the projection of the the shoulder blade that forms the point of the shoulder). The biacromial diameter is measured with the subject seated; the subject’s elbows are in contact with the body; hands rest on thighs; the examiner stands either before or behind the subject and measures the most lateral projections of the biacromial processes.
BIASTERIONIC (ast-ast)
The breadth of the skull on the chord between the left and right asterion.
BIASUTTI, RENATO
An Italian anthropologist.
BICONDYLAR BREADTH
The maximum distance between the lateral surfaces of the condyles, measured with sliding calipers.

Measuring bicondylar
and bigonial breadths
BIGONIAL DIAMETER (go-go) (bigonial breadth)
The maximum distance between the external gonial angles of the mandible, taken both on the dry mandible and on the living.
BIOCULAR WIDTH (ex-ex)
Measured with sliding calipers. Covering tips of the calipers as in en-en, place fixed tip of the calipers above subject's right exocanthion, slide movable tip to position above subject's left exocanthion; use fingers to steady the instrument above the subject's face.
BIODIVERSITY
The totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region or the world.
BIOLOGICAL SPECIES
= species.
BIOMETRIC
Pertaining to the accurate measurement of living beings.
BIZYGOMATIC DIAMETER
= maximum facial breadth.
BLACK ASIAN
In popular speech, any member of the various dark-skinned, non-Mongolid and non-Europid populations of (East) Asia, including Melanesids, Negritids and Veddids. The term is largely useless in the context of racial typology.
BLACK RACE
= Negrid, in Blumenbach's typology.
BLENDING INHERITANCE
The historically influential but factually erroneous theory that organisms contain a blend of their parents' hereditary factors and pass that blend on to their offspring. Compare with Mendelian inheritance.
BLONDISM
The result of significant depigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes. It has been suggested that this feature, which is possibly the expression of a mutation at the gene known asMC1R, arose in early (Paleolithic) northern European populations as a selective response to relatively low levels of ultraviolet radiation, resulting in insufficient synthesis of Vitamin D in the human body (Vitamin D is essential to the strength of the bone structure). Lighter-pigmented skin supposedly allows more ultraviolet radiation to enter, enabling an adequate production of Vitamin D. Sexual selection of novel, distinctive characters such as blond hair and light eyes (probably non-selected "side effects" of the general reduction in melanin) may have contributed greatly to the propagation of the phenotype. Contrary to popular belief, blondism is not in essence a distinctive or intrinsically Nordid feature, but is shared by most Europid (mostly Cro-Magnid) populations within a certain geographical range centered on the Baltic Sea (Dalo-Falids, Borrebys, Baltids, etc.). The lack of similar selection in Eskimids and other arctic peoples probably results from adequate levels of Vitamin D in their diets.
BOREALID
= Arctic Mongolid.
BOREALIZATION
Evolutionary adaptation to cold climates, involving a shortening of the lower extremities, a lengthening and broadening of the trunk, pyknomorphy, a shortening and rounding of the head and face, an increase in subcutaneous fat, and a levelling or flattening of the facial profile. Cf. Allen's Rule.
BORREBY (Nordalpinoid)
Partially alpinized (brachycephalized, somewhat reduced) and mostly depigmented Cro-Magnid type of northern Europe, common in northern Germany and Scandinavia. SNPA account here.

Danish Borreby (from
The Races of Europe
by Carleton S. Coon)
BOSKOPID
The ancestral type of the modern Khoisanids, from which the latter were derived through processes of reduction and infantilization. The type specimen is the Boskop skull, which was found in 1913 in the Transvaal, South Africa.
BOSS
Round, broad, bulging eminence on cranial bones; cf. frontal bosses.
BOTTLENECK
Form of genetic drift that occurs when a population is drastically reduced in size. Some genes may be lost from the gene pool as a result of chance.
BRACHYCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 80.0 or more (83.34 or more in the French system); round-/short-/broad-headed. Brachycephaly is the nominal form, and a brachycephalic individual is referred to as a brachycephal.
BRACHYCRANIAL
Possessing a cranial index of 80.0 or more; round-/short-/broad-skulled.
BRADYTELY
With reference to evolution, a word coined by G. G. Simpson and pertaining to a slow, gradualistic rate of morphologic change over time, not unlike that envisioned by Darwin. Cf.horotely, tachytely.
BRAZILID
Indianid type. Small, stocky mesocephals of the jungles around the Amazonian basin, including the adjacent highlands, along the Brazilian coast, in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies. Brazilids are characterized by relatively steep, broad foreheads, oval faces, soft features, mostly narrow eyelid slits, but not particularly Mongolid eye features, medium-broad to broad high-rooted nose, smooth or slightly wavy hair and yellowish light brown to brown skin.

Caribbean Brazilid
BREADTH-HEIGHT INDEX (B.H.I)
maximum head height * 100
    maximum head breadth
Martin (1928) gives Broca's divisions as:
(on the cranium)
B.H.I.          - 91.99 = tapeinocranial (low-skulled)
B.H.I. 92.00 - 97.99 = merriocranial (of moderate skull height)
B.H.I. 98.00 -          = acrocranial (high-skulled)
BREGMA (b)
The point where the sagittal and coronal sutures meet. In those cases where the most anterior segment of the sagittal suture deflects to one side, the point of the junction of the two sutures must be projected. Bregma is impossible to determine exactly on children’s crania with open fontanelles, skulls with "Fontanelle" bones, and in skulls with total obliteration of the sutures. In the latter case it may be possible to see existing traces of the sutures by slightly moistening the area. In case of the presence of a "Fontanelle" bone, a straight extension of the sagittal suture is drawn across the forehead while a similar connection is drawn between the two sections of the coronal suture. Bregma is positioned at the point of intersection of these two imaginary lines or extensions.
BROWRIDGE
Prominence of the frontal area immediately above the orbits and nasal root, and, on the living, underlying the eyebrows.
BRÜNN
In the works of Carleton S. Coon, and in the present context, Brünn refers to an unreduced and mostly depigmented northwestern European Upper Palaeolithic survivor of Cro-Magnid type, common in western Ireland, and similar to the Dalo-Falid type. The designation is problematic, however, as the skeletal remains unearthed at Brünn/Brno (Czech Rep.) belong to the Aurignacid/Capellid tradition, and not that of Crô-Magnon. SNPA account here.

Brünn (from The Races
of Europe by Carleton
S. Coon)
BRYN, HALFDAN
(? - ?) A Norwegian anthropologist who conducted numerous studies on the racial composition of the Norwegian population. In the early 1920's, he collaborated closely with K. E.and Alette Schreiner, but their connections soon deteriorated as a result of Bryn's increasing Nordicism, and he was left to his own work, which was meanwhile gaining a measure of popularity in Germany. Bryn soon formed a relationship with Günther and his wife, who were living in Norway at the time.
BUNAK, VIKTOR VALERIANOVICH
(1891 - 1979) A Russian anthropologist who conducted thorough studies of the Russian population, and who developed particular methods in the fields of ethnography andphysical anthropology.
BURYAT-MONGOL
In Coon's typology, a brachycephalic Mongolid type with extreme Mongolid features.

C
CALIFORNID
Subvariety of Margid (an Indianid type), in Lundman's typology.
CALIPERS
The standard instruments for collecting anthropological measurements.
 
Sliding calipers        Spreading calipers  Coordinate calipers
CALOTTE
The bones of the cranial vault, the calvaria without the cranial base.
CALVARIUM
The brain case.
CANTHUS
The angle at either end of the fissure between the eyelids.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE RACE
= Khoisanid, in the typology of Agassiz.
CAPELLID
Any type or individual recalling Combe-Capelle. Sometimes used synonymously with Aurignacid.
CAPOID
= Khoisanid.
CAPPADOCID
A Mediterranid variety, prevalent in Asia Minor and adjacent areas in prehistoric times; nowadays it has largely blended with Armenoids (this blend is known as Anatolid).

Cappadocid type (from The Races of Europe by Carleton S. Coon)
CARPATHID
Dinarid-Gorid intermediate, in many ways similar to the Gorid, with the exception of a larger nose.
CARPENTARIAN
Australid subtype of northern and central Australia, comparatively tall, straight-haired and dark skinned, with very little body hair. Similarities to the Veddids of India have been considered. The Carpentarians are associated by some with an alleged third wave of Australian aborigines, following that of the Murrayians.
CARRYING CAPACITY
The maximum number of individuals of a particular species that a given part of the environment can maintain indefinitely.
CASPID
= East-Mediterranid, as applied by e.g. Lundman to a large number of dolichocephalic brunet types, including Pontid and Indid.
CAUCASIAN
= Europid, in Blumenbach's typology; present popular usage, along with Caucasoid.
CAUCASID (Mtebid (Lundman))
Tall-statured Taurid indigenous to the northern Caucasus and adjacent regions, possibly initially a Dinarid-Armenoid intermediate. Caucasids are typical of the Georgian population, and the type is common among the Chechens, Ingushes, and Ossetians. A good example of the process of dinaricization, Caucasid features are probably a result of adaptation to life in mountainous regions. Not to be confused with Caucasian/Caucasoid.

Caucasid
CAUCASOID
= Europid; present popular usage, along with Caucasian.
CAUDAL
In quadrapeds, the tail end (cf. inferior).
CAVALLI-SFORZA, LUIGI LUCA
(1922 -) Italian population geneticist, one of the most influential scholars of his field in the 20th Century. Cavalli-Sforza’s research in genetic clustering within human populations has incited his official conclusion that strict racial classification is “futile”.

Cavalli-Sforza
CENTRAL ASIAN INTERSTREAM TYPE
= Pamirid, in the typologies of several Russian anthropologists.
CENTRALID (American Tropical Race (Agassiz, roughly equivalent); Istmid (Lundman); Zentralid (in German))
Indianid type. Medium to small, stocky and infantile brachycephals native to the areas between the southern coast of the USA and New Mexico and Arizona (Pueblo, Hopi etc.), eastern and southern Mexico (Maya and Aztec ancestry), Central America and western Colombia. Centralids are characterized by relatively steep but narrow foreheads, rectangular faces, relatively gracile features, sparsity of Mongoloid eye features, medium broad to broad, striking straight or slightly convex noses, smooth or slightly wavy hair and medium brown skin. The type is geographically highly variable, and Biasutti proposed two further subtypes, the southern, hyperbrachycephalic Istmid and the northern, less brachycephalicPueblid.

Central American
Centralid
CEPHALIC
Pertaining to the head (= Gk. kephalē).
CEPHALIC INDEX (C.I.)
maximum head breadth * 100
       maximum head length
According to the Frankfort Agreement of 1882 (incl. the amendment of the international agreement of 1883):
C.I. 55.0 - 59.9 = ultradolichocephalic (extremely long-/narrow-headed)
C.I. 60.0 - 64.9 = hyperdolichocephalic (very long-/narrow-headed)
C.I.       - 74.9 = dolichocephalic (long-/narrow-headed)
C.I. 75.0 - 79.9 = mesocephalic (intermediate in head form)
C.I. 80.0 -        = brachycephalic (round-/short-/broad-headed)
C.I. 85.0 - 89.9 = hyperbrachycephalic (very round-/short-/broad-headed)
C.I. 90.0 - 94.9 = ultrabrachycephalic (extremely round-/short-/broad-headed)
According to the French system:
C.I.          - 75.00 = dolichocephalic
C.I. 75.01 - 77.77 = subdolichocephalic
C.I. 77.78 - 80.00 = mesocephalic
C.I. 80.01 - 83.33 = subbrachycephalic
C.I. 83.34 -          = brachycephalic
Devised by Retzius, the cephalic index has played an important part in traditional racial studies. Today it is less relied upon for purposes of classification, but its application in a synchronic context is still useful enough for it to be considered valuable. Cf. cranial index.
CEPHALIC MODULE
A measure of absolute head size (cf. cranial module):
maximum head length + maximum head breadth + maximum head height
                                                                    3
CEPHALOMETRY
The measurement of the cephalic characters of living humans. Cf. craniometry, anthropometry.
   
Cephalometric landmarks

Landmark legend
CEVENNINE
A term suggested by Lundman, apparently indicating all (western?) European Alpinoid varieties, including Alpinid and Strandid.
CHAMAECEPHALIC
Possessing a length-height index of less than 70; low-headed. Chamaecephaly is the nominal form, and an chamaecephalic individual is referred to as a chamaecephal.
CHAMAECONCH
Possessing an orbital index of 82.9 and less; low-orbitted.
CHAMAERRHINE
Possessing a nasal index of 51.0 and over on the skull; relatively wide-nosed.
CHANCELADE
A male skeleton found in the Raymonden cave, near Chancelade in Dordogne, France, in 1888, dating from ~15,000 BC, and associated with the Magdalenian. At 155 cm, It is rather small (yet robust) as compared to Crô-Magnon and Předmost. The skull is dolicho- and hypsicranial, large- and high-faced, with a steep forehead and a rounded but steepoccipital region, the latter of which is unusual for modern dolichocephals. In life, the nose of Chancelade was highly rooted, beak-like, and very thin. A resemblance to Eskimid or other Mongolid/Mongoloid types has been noted (Carleton Coon called it "incipiently Mongoloid"), but a close connection is unlikely, on account of the prominent chin and lack of flaring gonial angles.

Chancelade
CHEILION (ch)
The outer corner of the mouth where the outer edges of the upper and lower vermilions meet.
CHERKESS TYPE
= Pontid, in the typologies of several Russian anthropologists.
CHIGNON
= occipital bun.
CHIN HEIGHT (sl-gn)
The distance between sublabiale and gnathion.
CHIN INCLINATION (sl-pg)
The distance between sublabiale and pogonion.
CHOSONID
North-Sinid subtype of Korea, distinguished from the Khitaid subtype by a higher cephalic index, larger face, wider nose, and thicker lips.
CHROMOSOMES
Strands of DNA that are found in the nucleus of each of the body's cells.
CLADISTICS
Approach to classification that seeks to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous (i.e. derived) characters.
CLADOGENESIS
Evolution by branching.
CLADOGRAM
A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by cladistic analysis. It is based solely on interpretation of shared derived characters. No time component is indicated, and ancestor-descendant relationships are not inferred.
CLASS
Taxonomic category ranking above order and below phylum.
CLINE
Gradual change in frequency of genotypes and phenotypes over geographical space, usually related to a corresponding environmental change.
COLUMELLA APEX (c')
The most anterior, or the highest point on the columella crest at the apex of the nostril.
COLUMELLA HEIGHT (sn-c')
The distance between subnasale and columella apex.
COLUMELLA WIDTH
= nose width.
COMBE-CAPELLE
Skeletal remains found near Montferrand in Perigord, France, in 1909, dating from ~40.000 B.P., and characterized by low to medium stature, a pentagonal-ellipsoid skull, leptoprosopy, archedsuperciliaries, low orbits, prognathism and a wide nasal index. Combe-Capelle is often contrasted with Crô-Magnon, the two exemplars being attributed to basic tendencies within the Europid group.

Combe-Capelle
CONDYLION LATERALE (cdl)
The most lateral point on the mandibular condyles.
CONGOID
= Negrid, in the typology of Coon.
CONSPECIFIC
Member of the same species.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION ((evolutionary) convergence)
The evolution of species from different taxonomic groups toward a similar form; the development of similar characteristics by taxonomically different organisms. Cf. homoplasy, parallelism.
COON, CARLETON STEVENS
SNPA account here.

Carleton S. Coon
COPE'S RULE
The biological rule, posited by Edward Drinker Cope (1840 - 1897), which states that population lineages tend to increase body size over geological time.
CORDED TYPE (Battle-Axe type)
A tall, leptomorphic, dolichocephalic, long-faced and high-headed type originally affiliated with the western Eurasian steppes. The Corded type is characterized by a linear but muscular build; its browridges and muscular markings are medium to strong, the mandible is deep and the chin is marked, but narrow through the gonial angles. The nose isleptorrhine and often prominent. Its name derives from its association with the Corded Ware culture; it was the principal type of the Battle-Axe and Boat-Axe populations in the north. In connection with the Nordid types, Corded influence is of the essence, and individuals of Nordid derivation, especially East-Nordids and Trønders, often completely recapitulate the original Corded type. The ultimate origin of the Corded type is uncertain. It has been theorized that this type is at least partially associated with the propagation of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a, which is found at significant frequencies along a northwestern-southeastern continuum running between the extremes of the Scandinavian Peninsula and the Subcontinent. Accordingly, tribes of predominantly Corded type have been credited with the propagation of Indo-European languages throughout western Eurasia.


Corded female skull from
Stetten, 2800-2200 BC
CORMIC INDEX
= sitting height index.
CORONAL PLANE
= frontal plane.
COSHU TYPE (Cosiu type (Saller); Jakunin type)
Mostly North-Sinid blend with Paleo-Mongolid and Ainuid admixture, local to Japan and Korea. It is distinguished by a narrower face and nose (which is often convex), a higher forehead and lower frequency of epicanthus, than the neighboring Sinid populations.

Japanese nobleman
of Coshu type
CRADLING
The practice, e.g. among North American Indians, of carrying infants attached to a cradle board, resulting in occipital flattening. Cf. annular constriction, positional plagiocephaly.
CRANIAL (superior)
Above or near the head.
CRANIAL BASE LENGTH (ba-n)
Measured from basion to nasion using spreading calipers.

Cranial base length
CRANIAL BASE WIDTH (t-t)
Measured with sliding calipers. The tragi are soft tissue landmarks; tips of the calipers should gently touch the superior margins of tragi.
CRANIAL CAPACITY
The volume displaced by the brain within a cranium. A simple measure of brain size, but not necessarily of intelligence.
CRANIAL INDEX
maximum cranial lenght * 100
    maximum cranial breadth

   Dolichocranial        Brachycranial
     (C.I. 72.9)           (C.I. 88.3)
Cf. cephalic index.
CRANIAL MODULE
A measure of absolute cranial size (cf. cephalic module):
maximum cranial length + maximum cranial breadth + maximum cranial height
                                                                    3
CRANIOMETRY
The measurement of the cranial characters of human remains. Cf. cephalometry, anthropometry.

Craniometric            Some craniometric
landmarks               distances

Landmark legend
CRANIUM
The face and the calvarium. Cf. skull.
CRISTA PHILTRE (cph)
A point on each crest of the philtrum.
CRO-MAGNID
Europid types descended from the robust, dolichocephalic and broad-faced population exemplified by Crô-Magnon, continuing the classic type of the hunter-gatherers of the temperate-cold/cold regions. Cro-Magnids proper (as exemplified by Dalo-Falids and "Brünns") are unreduced, somewhat gracilized and have narrower faces than their Upper Paleolithic ancestors. Other populations have experienced deviant evolutionary processes, leading to specializations like reduction and brachycephalization (Borreby, Alpinid andBaltid). Sporadic survivals of an eastern "pre-balticized" Cro-Magnid, similar to the western forms, may be found throughout predominantly Baltid populations.
CRO-MAGNOID
Similar and/or related to Cro-Magnid (or Crô-Magnon).
CRÔ-MAGNON
The first five skeletons of this kind were discovered in 1868 near les Eyzies-de-Tayac, with the definitive specimen from this excavation being known as Crô-Magnon I. The remains are assumed to date from ~25,000 BC. In life, this man was probably about 170 cm tall, and quite robustly built. The skull is quite large, dolichocranial, with a pentagonal outline in vertical view. The parietal bones bulge outward to the sides. The forehead is straight, the browridges slightly projecting, the cranial vault is noticeably flattened, and the occipital bone projects backward. Despite the long, narrow shape of the skull, the face appears rather short and wide. The maxillae are to some extent projecting. The orbits are low-set, wide, and square-shape. The nasal aperture of the skull is narrow, and strongly projecting. The mandible is robust, with massive ascending ramus, strongly developed points of muscular attachment, and a quite prominent chin.

Crô-Magnon I
CRURAL INDEX
tibia length* 100
   femur length
CURVOCCIPITAL
Possessing a curved occiput; the opposite of planoccipital.

Planoccipital (Dinarid) skull              Curvoccipital (Mediterranid) skull
CUTANEOUS LOWER LIP HEIGHT (li-sl)
The distance between labiale inferius and sublabiale.
CZEKANOWSKI, JAN
(1882 - 1965) A Polish anthropologist, statistician and linguist, who, in the course of his studies of African populations, developed various statistical methods and contributed to the field of taxonomy. He also made certain important contributions to Indo-European comparative linguistics. Here (legend) is an outline of his general racial typology.

Jan Czekanowski

D
DACRYON (d)
The point on the medial border of the orbit at which the frontal, lacrimal, and maxilla intersect. In other words, dacryon lies at the intersection of the lacrimomaxillary suture and thefrontal bone. There is often a small foramen at this point.
DALISCH
= Dalo-Falid, in Paudler's typology.
DALO-FALID (Dalisch (Paudler); Dalofaelid; Dalo-Nordic (von Eickstedt); Faelid (Lundman); Fälisch (Günther); Phalian/Phalid)
Unreduced and depigmented northern European Upper Paleolithic survivor of Cro-Magnid type, similar to the Irish "Brünn". The Dalo-Falid type is prevalent in northern Germany, and constitutes an important element in southern Scandinavia (incl. Lundman's Västmanland type). Certain scholars have considered it within the context of a "general Nordid" category (cf. Nordish). SNPA account here.

Dalo-Falid                Dalo-Falid skull
DALO-NORDIC
= Dalo-Falid, in von Eickstedt's and Paudler's typologies.
DANUBIAN
In Coon's typology, a small mesorrhine or chamaerrhine Mediterranean racial type, which supposedly participated in the formation of the Nordid variety/varieties through combination with the Corded type.
DARWIN, CHARLES
(1809 – 1882) A British naturalist who achieved lasting fame by convincing the scientific community of the occurrence of evolution and proposing the theory that this could be explained through naturaland sexual selection. This theory is now considered the central explanatory paradigm in biology.

Charles Darwin
DARWINISM
The theoretical approach to biological evolution first presented by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858. The central concept of the theory is natural selection, referring to the greater probability of survival and reproduction of those individuals of a species having adaptive characteristics for a given environment.
DAYAKID
= Proto-Malayid.
DEME
Local population of a species; the community of potentially interbreeding individuals at a given locality; a population or race sampled over time.
DEMOGRAPHY
The analysis of the size, composition, and rate of change of a population.
DENDROGRAM
A branching, or tree-like, diagram. Populations on closer branches are more closely related to each other than are populations on distant branches.
DENIKER, JOSEPH
(1852 - 1918) A French naturalist/anthropologist, the first to evolve the notion of a "Nordic race" (la race nordique). Deniker's racial typology for Europe assumed ten types ("ethnic groups"), six primary and four secondary. Here is an outline of his general racial typology.

Joseph Deniker
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
The double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code.
DEPIGMENTATION
Reduction of the dark pigment (melanin) in the skin, hair, and/or eyes, the ultimate result of which is blondism.
DERIVED (homologous)
Pertaining to characters that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus are diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages. Cf. apomorphy.
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
Phrase used by Charles Darwin with reference to the process by which natural selection favors some variations resulting in their becoming more common in the next generation. Descent with modification is another way of describing evolution.
DEUTERO-MALAYID
Nesid subtype (Nesid “proper”), with broader and more pronounced Mongolid features than Proto-Malayid.
DEVELOPMENTAL ADJUSTMENT
Change in the normal growth patterns and development of an individual that occurs in childhood as a result of specific cultural practices (e.g. foot binding) or other environmental processes. The anatomical and physiological changes that result are mostly irreversible by adulthood. Also referred to as developmental acclimatization.
DIASPORA
Scattering, migration in many directions, applied specifically to historical Jewish movements.
DINARID (Adriatic (Deniker); Epirotic)
Central and southeastern Europid, named with reference to the Dinaric Alps. The Dinarid is considered a Taurid, being a product of the dinaricization of an ancestral population of uncertain affiliation (a Borreby-like Cro-Magnoid type has been suggested). Dinarids are typically brachycephalic and planoccipital, long-faced and long- and convex-nosed, and intermediate to dark in pigmentation. They are most common in the Balkans, especially in the region of former Yugoslavia, and a Dinarid "belt" extends from France through southern Germany, the Alps and northern Italy, terminating in the western shoreline populations of the Black Sea. Cf. Norid.
   
Dinarid (from The Races of Europe by Carleton S. Coon)                               Dinarid skull (after Günther)
DINARICIZATION
An evolutionary process involving brachycephalization, flattening of the occipital region, and development of a long and prominent nasal apparatus, typically of extreme convexity. Dinaricization, whatever its precise nature, could be an adaptation to life in mountainous regions, and is allegedly correlated with herding populations. The Eurasian Taurid types (including the European Dinarid) are classic examples of dinaricization, but a tendency may also be observed outside of the Europid group, e.g. in certain Indianid populations. Based on observations made by the budding physical anthropologist Byron O. Hughes in his doctor's thesis (The Physical Anthropology of Native Born Armenians), Coonexplained the special set of features as the divergent outcome of interbreeding between Alpinid and Mediterranid populations of certain proportions (2/3 Mediterranid, 1/3 Alpinid; see The Races of Europe, Photographic Supplement, plate 35). It has also been suggested that brachycephalized Cro-Magnoids and/or similar strains have been involved in the various formations.
DINARIFORM
Resembling or approaching the Dinarid form in certain respects.
DINAROID
Having features similar to Dinarids or Taurids.
DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
Selection for or against one extreme of a trait. In the case of polygenic traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as stature, it would be selection for people who are either very tall or very short. The result would be a progressive increase in the form of the trait that is being selected for and a reduction in the form that is being selectedagainst. In the case of a trait controlled by only two alleles, it would be selection against one of the alleles. Cf. disruptive selection, stabilizing selection.
DISRUPTIVE SELECTION
Selection for both extremes of a trait and against the middle. In the case of polygenic traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as stature, it would be selection for both very tall and very short people and against those who are average in height. The result would be a progressive increase in both of the extreme forms of this trait and a reduction in the middle range. In the case of a trait controlled by only two alleles, it would be selection for both recesssive and dominant homozygotes and againstheterozygotes. The result would be a progressive reduction in the number of people who are heterozygous for the trait in the population. Cf. directional selection, stabilizing selection.
DISTAL
Away from the center.
DNA
= deoxyribonucleic acid.
DOLICHOCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 74.9 or less (75.00 or less in the French system); long-/narrow-headed. Dolichocephaly is the nominal form, and a dolichocephalic individual is referred to as a dolichocephal.
DOLICHOCRANIAL
Possessing a cranial index of 74.9 or less; long-/narrow-skulled.
DOLLO'S LAW
The hypothesis, posited in 1890 by the palaeontologist Louis Dollo (1857 - 1931), which states that evolution is non-reversible (i.e., structures or functions discarded during the course of evolution do not reappear in a given line of organisms).
DOMINANCE
The ability of a given genetic trait or character to assert itself over a so-called recessive trait or character.
DORSAL (posterior)
The back side of the body.
DRAVIDIAN
= Veddid and/or Indo-Melanid, in the typology of Deniker and others.

E
EAR INCLINATION (sa-sba)
Measured between super- and subaurale.
EAR INSERTION (obs-obi)
Measured between the otobasia (inferius and superius).
EAR LENGTH (sa-sba)
The distance between superaurale and subaurale.
EAR WIDTH (pra-pra)
The distance between the preaurales.
EAST-ALPINID
= Gorid.
EAST-BALTID (Homo arcticus fennicus (Sergi))
Northeastern European composite type, resulting from the influx and subsequent stabilization of Lappoid elements in a Baltid population. It represents one end of a "continuum", opposite to West-Baltid. SNPA account here.

East-Baltid (after
Biasutti)
EAST-CRO-MAGNID
The Cro-Magnid type, cognate with Dalo-Falid ("West-Cro-Magnid"), that lies at the back of the modern Baltid types. Single instances reflecting the original "un-balticized" type may be found in predominantly Baltid populations, but they are individual manifestarions of a substrate, and nowhere does the type form a population in its own right. West-Baltid refers to a slightly altered (balticized) East-Cro-Magnid, which forms a greater population element.
EASTERN AMERICAN TEMPERATE RACE
Roughly equivalent to Silvid, in the typology of Agassiz.
EAST-MEDITERRANID
Refers to the Mediterranid varieties, including Pontid, which are indigenous to the eastern Mediterranean areas. The term has also been applied to a larger selection of eastern European and Central Asian brunet dolichocephalic types, including Orientalids.
EAST-NORDID
Coined by Lundman; eastern European Nordid, characterized by a dominant Corded element. SNPA account here.

Russian East-Nordid
(Pavel Kashin)
EAST-SIBIRID (Paleo-Siberian)
Arctic Mongolid variety, distinguished by greater facial profile, wider lower jaw, lower frequency of epicanthus, thicker lips, mesognathy, very coarse hair, high-rooted and narrow nose, very pyknic and massive body build, very advanced musculature, and distinguished especially by white skin. East-Sibirids are found in Chukotka-Kamchatka. Cf. Sibirid,West-Sibirid.

East-Sibirid
EAST-VEDDID
Eastern variety of Veddid, relative to the "western" varieties of the Indian Subcontinent.

East-Veddid from
Bangladesh
ECOTONE
Transition area between two adjacent ecological communities; ecotones tend to display a greater than usual diversity of species.
ECTOCONCHION (ec)
The intersection of the most anterior surface of the lateral border of the orbit and a line bisecting the orbit along its long axis. To mark ectoconchion, move a toothpick or other thin straight instrument up and down, keeping it parallel to the superior orbital border, until you divide the eye orbit into two equal halves. Mark the point on the anterior orbital margin with a pencil.
ECTOMOLARE (ecm)
The most lateral point on the outer surface of the alveolar margins, usually opposite the middle of the upper second molar tooth.
VON EICKSTEDT, EGON (FREIHERR)
(1892 - 1965) German anthropologist and ethnographer of considerable influence and legacy. Follow this link for von Eickstedt's racial map of Europe.

Egon von Eickstedt
ENDEMIC
Characteristic of, or native or restricted to, a particular population or locality.
ENDOBASION
The single point at the posterior margin of the anterior border of the foramen magnum. It is usually internal to basion. It is used for facial measurements, not cranial height.
ENDOCANTHION (en)
The inner corner of the eye fissure where the eyelids meet, not the caruncles (the red eminences at the medial angles of the eyes).
ENDOGAMY
The custom by which members of a group marry exclusively within the group; the opposite of exogamy.
ENDOMOLARE (enm)
The most medial point on the inner surface of the alveolar ridge opposite the middle of the second upper molar tooth.
ENDOMORPHIC
= pyknic, in the somatotypology of Sheldon.
EPICANTHIC FOLD (epicanthus; palpebronasal fold; plica palpebronasalis)
Skin fold of the upper eyelid (from the nose to the inner side of the eyebrow) covering the inner corner (medial canthus) of the human eye. This fold covers and appears to lower the inner corners of the eyes, creating the appearance of "slanted eyes." It is commonly known amongst Asians as "single-eyelids", as opposed to "double eyelids". Epicanthus is primarily associated with the Mongolid and Khoisanid subspecies.

EPIROTIC
= Dinarid.
ESKIMID
Arctic Mongolid variety distinguished by greater facial profile, wider lower jaw, lower frequency of epicanthus, thicker lips, mesognathy, very coarse hair, high-rooted and narrow nose, a rather pyknic and massive body build, advanced musculature, and darker skin. Eskimids are found in arctic North America, Greenland, and intermittently in coastal Chukotka-Kamchatka.

Eskimid (after Glowatzki)
ETHIOPIAN
= Negrid (probably including Khoisanid), in Blumenbach's typology.
ETHMOID BONE
Seivelike spongy bone located in the anterior part of the floor of the cranium between the orbits; the ethmoid is the principal supporting structure of the nasal cavity.
ETHNIC GROUP
Group of people within a larger social and cultural unit who identify themselves as a culturally and historically distinct entity, separate from the rest of that society.
EUGENICS
The philosophy of “race improvement” through forced sterilization of members of some groups and encouraged reproduction among others.
EURAFRICAN
In Sergi's typology, all dolichocephalic Europid types; the opposite of Eurasiatic.
EURASIATIC
In Sergi's typology, all brachycephalic Europid types; the opposite of Eurafrican.
EUROPEAN TEMPERATE RACE
= Europid, in the typology of Agassiz.
EUROPID (Caucasian or White race (Blumenbach); Caucasoid; European Temperate Race (Agassiz); Homo sapiens albus)
One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens, indigenous to western Eurasia and North Africa. The most important subvarieties or evolutionary tendencies are Cro-Magnoid (including Alpinoid), Indid, Mediterranid, Nordid, Orientalid and Taurid.
EUROPOID
Resembling or approaching Europid.
EURYENE (euryonic)
Possessing an upper facial index of 45.0 - 49.9; short-/broad-upper-faced.
EURYON (eu)
The most laterally positioned point on the side of the braincase. Euryon always falls on either the parietal bone or on the upper portion of the temporal bone and may be determined only by measuring maximum cranial breadth. The area of the root of the zygomatic arch, the supramastoid crest, and the entire adjacent region above the external auditory meatus, which sometimes exhibit excessive symmetrical lateral expansion, should be avoided when determining the position of euryon.
EURYPROSOPIC
Possessing a facial index of 80.0 - 89.9; short-/broad-faced.
EVOLUTION
A change in the frequency of alleles from one generation to the next.
EXOCANTHION (ex)
The outer corner of the eye fissure where the eyelids meet.
EXOGAMY
The custom by which members of a group regularly marry outside the group; the opposite of endogamy.
EXOSTOSIS
A bony excrescence.
EYE-EAR PLANE
A conventional or standard level at which the skull is placed for craniometric study, with the lower border of the left orbit on the same horizontal plane as the upper borders of the two ear holes.
EYE FISSURE HEIGHT (ps-pi)
The distance between palpebrale superius and palpebrale inferius.
EYE FISSURE INCLINATION (en-ex) (orbital inclination)
Measured between endo- and exocanthion.
EYE FISSURE LENGTH (en-ex)
The distance between endo- and exocanthion.

F
F1 GENERATION
The first offspring (or filial) generation. The next and subsequent generations are referred to as f2, f3, etc.
FACIAL INDEX (F.I.) (total facial index)
morphological face height * 100
       maximum facial breadth
According to Martin:
F.I.        - 79.9 = hypereuryprosopic (very short-/broad-faced)
F.I. 80.0 - 89.9 = euryprosopic (short-/broad-faced)
F.I. 90.0 - 94.9 = leptoprosopic (long-/narrow-faced)
F.I. 95.0 -        = hyperleptoprosopic (very long-/narrow-faced)
A F.I. of 84.0 - 87.9 is often called mesoprosopic (moderate in facial form).

   Leptoprosopic       Euryprosopic
     (F.I. 93.5)           (F.I. 83.5)
FÄLISCH
= Dalo-Falid, in Günther's typology.
FAMILY
Taxonomic category of related organisms ranking below order and above genus. A family usually consists of several genera.
FEHMARNER TYPE
A special Borreby phenotype, associated with the German island of Fehmarn.
FENNO-NORDID
A hypothetical eastern Nordid type, in von Eickstedt's typology.
FITNESS
Pertaining to natural selection, a measure of relative reproductive success of individuals. Fitness can be measured by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation compared to that of other individuals.
FOETALIZATION
= neoteny.
FORAMEN
A hole in a bone (pl. foramina).
FORAMEN MAGNUM
The main opening at the base of the skull through which the brain is connected to the major nerves of the body.
FORAMINAL BREADTH
The maximum internal breadth of the foramen magnum perpendicular to its length, measured with spreading or sliding calipers.
FORAMINAL LENGTH
Measured from basion to opisthion using spreading or sliding calipers.
FOREHEAD HEIGHT I (tr-g)
The distance between trichion and glabella.
FOREHEAD HEIGHT II (tr-n)
The distance between trichion and nasion.
FOSSA
Literally a "ditch," a shallow depression, concavity, or trough, e.g. temporal fossae.
FOSTER'S RULE (Island rule)
The evolutionary principle, posited by J. Bristol Foster in 1964, which states that members of a species will get smaller or bigger depending on the resources available in the environment. Cf. island dwarfing, island gigantism.
FOUNDER EFFECT
Type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations.
FRANKFORT HORIZONTAL PLANE
A horizontal line from the top of the external auditory canal to the lowest point on the inferior border of the orbit. Usually referred to simply as the Frankfort Plane.

The Frankfort Horizontal Plane
FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT SELECTION
Selection in which the fitness of a genotype (or phenotype) depends on its frequency in the population.
FRISIAN TYPE
= Friterpian type.
FRITERPIAN TYPE (Frisian type)
Slightly altered (Cro-Magnid-influenced) Nordid variety found in the Netherlands and throughout the traditional Frisian areas of the northwestern European coast. It is similar to theAnglo-Saxon type, but less influenced by Cro-Magnid. The name was coined by Nyessen.
FRONTAL BONE
Forms the forehead, the roofs of the orbits, and most of the anterior part of the cranial floor.
FRONTAL BOSS (metopic eminence)
Bulge or eminence on the frontal, at the middle of the squama. It may be centrally located, or exist as paired frontal tubers that mark the location of the original ossification centers.
FRONTAL PLANE (coronal plane)
Divides the body into front and rear sections.
FRONTOMALARE TEMPORALE (fmt)
The most laterally positioned point on the frontomalar suture.
FRONTOPARIETAL INDEX
minimum frontal breadth * 100
       maximum head breadth
On the cranium:
         - 65.99 = stenometopic (narrow)
66.00 - 69.99 = metriometopic (moderate)
70.00 -          = eurymetopic (broad)
FRONTOTEMPORALE (ft)
A point located generally forward and inward on the superior temporal line directly above the zygomatic process of the frontal bone.
FRONTOZYGOMATICUS (fz)
The most lateral point on the frontozygomatic suture.
FRONTOZYGOMATICUS-GLABELLA-FRONTOZYGOMATICUS (fz-g-fz)
Measured on the surface above the orbits using a measuring tape: place the tape at the origin of the right frontozygomaticus, guiding the tape over glabella to the leftfrontozygomaticus.
FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
The relationship between form and function in organisms, in an adaptive and evolutionary context.

G
GALATIAN TYPE
Special French Sub-Nordid subtype, combining primarily Nordid and Alpinid.

Galatian type (from
The Races of Europe
by Carleton S. Coon)
GANGID
In the typology of Lundman, a variety of East-Mediterranid described as "small, very gracile, with thin, sparse beard, and a high frequency of blood type gene q."
GENE
Sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein or, in some cases, a portion of a protein. A gene may be made up of hundreds or thousands of DNA bases. Cf. allele.
GENE FLOW
Exchange of genes between populations.
GENE POOL
The total genetic information encoded in the total genes in a breeding population existing at a given time.
GENERAL PROFILE ANGLE (g-pg)
Measured between glabella and pogonion.
GENERALIZED
(1) Primitive, similar to the ancestral condition; (2) adapted to a broad range of resources.
GENETIC DRIFT
The shift of gene frequencies as a consequence of genetic sampling errors that come from the migration of small sub-populations away from the parent group, or natural disasters that wipe out a large part of a population.
GENETICS
The study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the underlying foundation for evolutionary change.
GENOME
The entire genetic makeup of an individual or of a species. In humans, it is estimated that each individual possesses approximately 3 billion DNA nucleotides.
GENOTYPE
The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism's entire genetic makeup or the alleles at a particular locus. Cf. phenotype.
GENUS
Taxonomic category ranking below family and above species, generally consisting of a group of species exhibiting similar characteristics (pl. genera).
GERONTOMORPHOUS
Characterized by physical traits most fully developed in the aged male; the opposite of paedomorphous.
GLABELLA (g) (nasal eminence)
The most forwardly projecting point in the mid-sagittal plane at the lower margin of the frontal bone, which lies above the nasal root and between the superciliary arches. the point of glabella is depressed between the confining bony ridges, and is often delineated superiorly by a shallow gutter or a transversely running indentation on the surface of the frontal bone. Note that in juvenile skulls with strongly forwardly vaulted foreheads, the most projecting point of the curve of the forehead is not that of glabella. However, its position is still possible to determine.
GLABELLO-OCCIPITAL LENGTH
= maximum head length.
GLOGER’S RULE
The biological rule, posited in 1833 by the zoologist and ornithologist Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger (1803 - 1863), which states that within a species of endotherms (=mammals and birds), more heavily pigmented forms tend to be found near the equator, and lighter forms away from the equator.
GLOWATZKI, GEORG
[entry pending]
GNATHION  (gn) (menton)
The lowest point on the inferior margin of the mandibular body in the mid-sagittal plane. Frequently, gnathion is not the most inferiorly located point of the mandible, as the more laterally placed elements of the mandible may be extending far more inferiorly. This is particularly the case in mandibles with broad and square chin development.
GONDID
The "standard" Veddid subvariety of the central Indian inlands, typified by the Gondi tribe.

Gondid boy
GONIAL ANGLES
The outer posterior angles or corners of the lower jaw, at the bases of the ascending rami.
GONION (go)
The point on the mandible where the inferior margin of the mandibular corpus and the posterior margin of the ramus meet, i.e. the point on the mandibular angle which is directed most inferiorly, posteriorly, and laterally. If the mandibular angle is not pronounced, position the mandible with the angle facing upward, so that the right and left posterior margin of the mandibular body declines inferiorly into horizontal lines. Gonion is positioned at the highest point of the curvature. When measuring the bigonial diameter the most lateral position of the angles should be chosen as measuring points.
GORID (East-Alpinid)
Estern European Alpinoid influenced by Baltid, yielding a more gracile and characteristically higher-skulled type. The name is derived from Polish gora, "mountain".

Gorid
GÖTATYP
= Hallstatt Nordid, in Lundman's typology.
GRACILE
Graceful, slender, delicately built, with weak muscle attachments or bony butresses. A relative condition referenced to another condition, and the opposite of robust. Gracilization, accordingly, is an evolutionary tendency in a more gracile direction.
GRACILE-INDID
"Indid proper", rhe prevalent Europid type of the Indian Subcontinent, perceived by some authors as the eastern continuation (and termination) of a "belt" running eastward through the largely lepto-dolichomorphic Mediterranid and Orientalid populations. Characterized by short stature, dolichocephaly, high-headedness, orthognathy, and a long and prominent but mesorrhine nose. The skin color varies between light and dark brown, the hair is straight to wavy and usually black, and the eyes are dark.

Gracile-Indid (after Coon)
GRACILE-MEDITERRANID (Ibero-Insular (Deniker); Small Mediterranean (Coon); West-Mediterranean (Lundman))
The "typical Mediterranids" or "Mediterranids proper" of the northern Mediterranean coast and adjacent territories. They are characterized by a medium to short, gracile skeleton, mesomorphy and a small skull. Gracile-Mediterranids are relatively dark compared to Europeans in general (cf. Atlanto-Mediterranid).
   
Gracile-Mediterranid                Gracile-Mediterranid skull
GRADE
Evolutionary level or status through which one or more phyletic lines may pass.
GRADUALISM (phyletic gradualism)
The notion that the evolution of biological species is a slow and gradual process, without sudden and violent transitions. The opposite of punctuated equilibrium.
GÜNTHER, HANS FRIEDRICH KARL
(1891 - 1968) Known variously as Rassengünther ("Race-Günther") and Rassenpapst ("Race-Pope"), H. F. K. Günther was a German anthropologist, infamous for his affiliation with and contributions to the German National Socialist racial program up until and during WWII.

H
HALLSTATT NORDID (Götatyp (Lundman); Østerdal-type (Bryn); Teutonordid (von Eickstedt, Paudler))
The classic Nordid type, predominant in Sweden and southeastern Norway; common elsewhere in Scandinavia, and less important as a population element in northern Germany, the Be-Ne-Lux and the British Isles. SNPA account here.

Hallstatt Nordid (Max
von Sydow, Sweden)
HAMITIC RACE
= Aethiopid, in Günther's typology (Hamitisch)
HARDANGER TYPE
A special phenotype associated with the Trønder gradient, named after the mountainous region surrounding the Norwegian Hardanger fjord, and exhibiting a predominance ofCorded features.

Hardanger type (from
Die Somatologie der
Norweger by K. E.
Schreiner)
HARDY-WEINBERG LAW
The principle which states that if a population experiences no selection, no mutations, no migration, no genetic drift, and random mating, then the frequency of each allele and the frequencies of genotype in the population would remain the same from one generation to the next.
HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE (g-op)
Measured by encircling tape around the head, covering glabella and opisthocranion.
HEIGHT-LENGTH INDEX
maximum head height * 100
     maximum head length
HEIGHT (LENGTH) OF ASCENDING RAMUS
From gonion to the uppermost part of the condyle. Measure with sliding calipers. Locate gonion by bisecting the angles formed by prolonged lines drawn on the inferior and posterior borders of the bone, and mark its location. Place the fixed end of the calipers on top of the condyles and bring the movable end to gonion.
HERITABILITY
The proportion of the measurable variation in a given trait in a specified population estimated to result from hereditary rather than environmental factors.
HETEROTYPIC
Of a different type or form. Cf. homotypic.
HETEROZYGOUS
Genotype consisting of two different alleles of a gene for a particular trait (Aa). Individuals who are heterozygous for a trait are referred to as heterozygotes. Cf. homozygous.
HOID
= North-Sinid, in the typology of Lundman (who himself primarily used North-Sinid).
HOLOTYPE
= type.
HOMO ARCTICUS FENNICUS
= East-Baltid, in the typology of Sergi.
HOMO SAPIENS ALBUS
= Europid.
HOMO SAPIENS AMERICANUS
= Indianid.
HOMO SAPIENS AUSTRALASICUS
= Australid.
HOMO SAPIENS AFER
= Negrid.
HOMO SAPIENS ASIATICUS
= Mongolid.
HOMO SAPIENS HOTTENTOTUS
= Khoisanid.
HOMOLOGOUS
= derived.
HOMOPLASY
Correspondence between morphological characters arising from evolutionary convergence. Cf. parallelism.
HOMOTYPIC
Having the same type of structure. Cf. heterotypic.
HOMOZYGOUS
Genotype consisting of two identical alleles of a gene for a particular trait. An individual may be homozygous dominant (AA) or homozygous recessive (aa). Individuals who are homozygous for a trait are referred to as homozygotes. Cf. heterozygous.
HOOTON, EARNEST ALBERT
(1887 - 1954) American physical anthropologist known in his time for establishing Harvard University as a center for physical anthropology in the United States. His racial typology is outlined in works such as Up From the Ape (1931).

Hooton's attempt
at a phylogeny
HOPEFUL MONSTER
The colloquial term used in evolutionary biology to describe an event of instantaneous-speciation, saltation, or systemic mutation, which contributes positively to the production of new major evolutionary groups.
HORIZONTAL PLANE
= transverse plane.
HOROTELY
With reference to evolution, a word coined by G. G. Simpson and pertaining to a moderately punctuational rate of development. Cf. bradytely, tachytely.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)
Federally funded project to determine the DNA base sequence of every gene in the human genome.
HUMEROFEMORAL INDEX
humerus length * 100
        femur length
HYBRID VIGOR
The phenomenon that occurs when a new generation, whose parent groups were from previously separated breeding populations, is generally healthier and larger than either of the parent populations.
HYBRIDS
Offspring of mixed ancestry; heterozygotes.
HYBRID ZONE
Geographical area of gene flow between two reproductively isolated extremes of a parent species, resulting e.g from parapatric speciation.
HYPERBRACHYCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 85.0 to 89.9; very round-/short-/broad-headed.
HYPERDOLICHOCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 60.0 to 64.9; very long-/narrow-headed.
HYPEREURYENE (hypereuryonic)
Possessing an upper facial index of 44.9 or less; extremely long-/narrow-upper-faced.
HYPEREURYPROSOPIC
Possessing a facial index of 79.9 or less; extremely short-/broad-faced.
HYPERLEPTENE (hyperleptous)
Possessing an upper facial index of 60.0 or more; extremely long-/narrow-upper-faced.
HYPERLEPTOPROSOPIC
Possessing a facial index of 95.0 or less; extremely long-/narrow-faced.
HYPERPLATYRRHINE
Possessing a nasal index of 58.1 or more; extremely broad-nosed.
HYPSICEPHALIC
Possessing a length-height index of 75 or more; high-headed. Hypsicephaly is the nominal form, and a hypsicephalic individual is referred to as a hypsicephal.
HYPSICONCH
Possessing an orbital index of 89.0 or more; high-orbited.

I
IBERO-INSULAR
= Gracile-Mediterranid, in Deniker's typology.
ICONOTYPE
Drawing or photograph of a type specimen.

Iconotypes of Armenid: Left: Coon,
photograph;Right: Lundman, drawing
INCIPIENTLY MONGOLOID
A racial type which has evolved part way in a Mongoloid direction, and which may have other, non-Mongoloid specializations of its own, is called incipiently Mongoloid. Cf. Lappoid.
INCIPIENT SPECIES
Geographically isolated population; with time, the accumulation of genetic differences in a population produces isolating mechanisms which inhibit the reproductive potential of the incipient population and its conspecific parent population.
INCISION
The single point at the incisal level of the upper central incisors; the lower edge of the upper central incisors.
INDIANID (American or Red race (Blumenbach); Amerind; Homo sapiens americanus)
Essentially Mongolid but significantly derived group associated with the Native Americans. The general Indianid morphology is characterized by a high and large face, a broad lower jaw, mesognathy, a large and frequently aquiline nose, wide mouth, wider eyelids than Asian Mongolids, low frequencies of epicanthus, greater facial profile than AsianMongolids, straight and sometimes gently waving hair, weak growth of facial hair, very dark eye and hair pigmentation, swarthy skin (usually bronze-like), a typically massive body build, and frequently tall stature, although this is rather variable. Subtypes are: Andid, Brazilid, Centralid, Lagid, Margid, Pacifid and Silvid. Indianids are found in North, Central and South America, in the Caribbean, and on surrounding islands.

Distributional maps of Indianid
types (von Eickstedt)
INDID (Indo-Caucasian)
Europid race of the Indian Subcontinent. Indids are medium-statured, gracile and slender. They are long-headed, longish- and oval-faced, with steep foreheads and straight noses, moderately thick lips and wide eyelid apertures. The skin is light brown, the hair is black or dark brown, and the eyes are dark brown. Subvarieties are Gracile-Indid ("Indid proper"), North-Indid, and Indo-Brachid.
INDO-ABORIGINAL
= Veddid.
INDO-AFGHAN
= Iranid as well as North-Indid, in Deniker's typology.
INDO-BRACHID
Medium-statured, brachycephalic coastal type of the Indian Subcontinent, characterized by occipital flattening, high-headedness, orthognathy, a short and broad face, and a long, prominent and frequently convex nose. The skin color varies between rather light and moderately dark brown, the hair is generally straight and black, and the eyes are mostly dark. It is classed as an Indid subtype by von Eickstedt.

Indo-Brachid
INDO-CAUCASIAN
= Indid.
INDO-MELANID
Indid-Veddid intermediate typical of the Dravidian populations of southeastern India, and present as a population element throughout the Subcontinent. Indo-Melanids are short-bodied and long-limbed, heavily pigmented, long-headed and usually mesorrhine. Nasal convexity and curly hair are common features, and the Indo-Melanid morphology has been described as mostly Europid, with the exception of very dark skin color. Cf. Melanid, Kolid.

Indo-Melanid
INFANTILE
Child-like (juvenile) in bodily form. Infantile characteristics are a paedomorphous evolutionary trait in certain racial types, but the term may also apply to aberrant individual cases.
INFERIOR
Below, toward the feet.
INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE
One of three scroll-like bones that project from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity; the inferior nasal conchae articulate with the ethmoid, maxilla, lacrimal and palatine bones and form the lower part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
INFRA-
Prefix meaning below or under.
INFRADENTALE (id)
The point between the lower incisor teeth where the anterior margins of the alveolar processes are intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. The point corresponds to the antero-superior limit of the fetal symphyseal suture.
INION (i)
A single point at the intersection of the left and right superior nuchal lines, the most prominent point on the external occipital protuberance in the median sagittal plane. Inion may be absent in cases of occipital torus.
IN SITU
In the natural or original position; e.g. in situ development of racial features.
INTERCANTHAL WIDTH (en-en)
The distance between the endocanthia.
INTERMEMBRAL INDEX
A relative measure of the upper and lower limbs:
(humerus length + radius length) * 100
        (femur length + tibia length))
INTEROCULAR DISTANCE (interocular diameter) (en-en)
Measured with sliding calipers. Covering tips of the calipers with index fingers, place fixed tip above subject's right endocanthion; use 3rd and 5th fingers to steady instrument above subject's face as you slide left tip to the left endocanthion.
INTERORBITAL DISTANCE (interorbital breadth)
The distance between the inner borders of the bony eye sockets (bilaterally the point where the posterior lacrimal crest meets the inferior border of the frontal).
INTRASPECIFIC
Within species; refers to variation seen within the same species.
IRANID (Irano-Afghan (Coon))
The relatively tall, dolicho-mesocephalic, long-faced, high-headed and hook-nosed type prevalent in Iran, Afghanistan and adjacent territories. In the typology of von Eickstedt, it is an Orientalid subtype, which thereby relates it to the Arabid. Others regard it as an "East-Mediterranid"-Arabid blend, but the Iranid is morhologically more similar to Mediterranidsand even Nordids (cf. Corded type) than to Arabids.

Iranid (from The Races of Europe by Carleton S.
Coon ("Irano-Afghan race"))
ISLAND DWARFING
The biological phenomenon by which the size of animals isolated on an island shrinks dramatically over generations. Cf. Foster's rule, island gigantism.
ISLAND GIGANTISM
The biological phenomenon by which the size of animals isolated on an island increases dramatically over generations. Cf. Foster's rule, island dwarfing.
ISLAND RULE
= Foster's rule.
ISTMID
1) = Centralid, in Lundman's typology; 2) A southern, hyperbrachycephalic subvariety of Centralid, in Biasutti's typology.

J
JAKUNIN TYPE
= Coshu type.

K
KAFRID (Bantuid)
Negrid subtype. A basic Negrid with minor Khoisanid, Paleo-Negrid and/or Aethiopid influence (depending on the region), resulting from assimilation of such types in association with "the Bantu wave".

Kafrid from Namibia (after Knußmann)
KELTIC NORDID
Special northwestern European type, identified by Coon, and named for its alleged association with the early Celtic peoples; essentially a low-vaulted, prominent-nosedmesocephal, altered from a more traditionally Nordid ancestral form by Dinarid and other low-level non-Nordid admixture; predominant in England, common in the Be-Ne-Lux. SNPA account here.

"Keltic Iron Age type" (from The Races of
Europe by Carleton S. Coon)
KELTOÏD
Early term used by Norwegian anthropologists to denote Strandid.
KENNEWICK MAN
9,300-year-old American skeleton found in 1996 along the Columbia River at Kennewick, WA. The find has drawn much popular attention, due to the fact that Kennewick Man'scranial features do not fall within the natural range of Indianid types. Europid affiliation was initially suggested, but recent research seems to indicate a closer relationship with anthropological types of the Pacific Rim, specifically Ainuid and Polynesid. Cf. Luzia.

Kennewick Man skull           Facial reconstruction
KHITAID
North-Sinid subtype of northern China.
KHOID
Khoisanid subvariety of the Nama/Hottentots, characterized by less reduced features and more Negrid admixture than Sanids.

Khoid Hottentot from Namibia (after Knußmann)
KHOISANID (Cape of Good Hope Race (Agassiz); Capoid; Homo sapiens hottentotus)
One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens; indigenous to southern Africa, especially the Kalahari. Khoisanids are characterized by small stature and accompanyinginfantilism in bodily proportions (their Boskopid predecessor was full-sized). The females are often steatopygic. The faces are flat, with prominent malars, the noses are flat and wide, and the eyelid apertures are narrow. The latter feature is frequently accompanied by epicanthus, and the superficial similarity with southeastern Asian types is sometimes striking. The skin is leathery-yellow, the hair is black and spiral-shaped, and the eyes are dark brown. Two Khoisanid varieties are sometimes distinguished (Khoid and Sanid).

Khoisanid (Bushman)     Khoisanid skull
KIANGID
= Middle-Sinid, in the typology of Lundman (who himself primarily used Middle-Sinid).
KINGDOM
The largest generally accepted taxonomic category, ranking above phylum.
KOLID
Indo-Melanid subvariety of the Santals, Munda, and other tribes of the northeastern Indian Subcontinent. Kolids are characterized by medium stature, dolichocephaly, broad noses, heavy lips, dark skin, and black and curly hair.
KRETSCHMER, ERNST
(1888 - 1964) German psychiatrist, famous for his research into the relationship between human constitution and personality character, and the development of a constitutional typology. He posited three basic constitutional types: asthenic (tall, slender), athletic (muscular), and pyknic (rotund), each variously prone to certain psychological states, behavioural patterns, and disorders.

Ernst Kretschmer
KUMID
Tungid subtype of Turkestan and Mongolia and the surrounding regions. Kumids are characterized by a low and wide skull (sometimes higher than with the Taigid subtype), high and wide face with somewhat smaller malars than the Taigid subtype, high frequency of epicanthus (however less so than with the Taigid subtype), and high and often rather large nose, of little projection. The hair is coarse and black, the eyes are dark, the skin is darker than with the Taigid subtype, and beard growth is scant (but stronger than with theTaigid subtype).

Kumid man
KURILID
= Ainuid.

L
LABIAL FISSURE WIDTH (ch-ch)
The distance between the cheilions.
LABIAL FISSURE HALF-WIDTH (ch-sto)
The distance between cheilion and stomion.
LABIALE INFERIUS (li)
The midpoint of the vermilion border of the lower lip.
LABIALE SUPERIUS (ls)
The midpoint of the vermilion border of the upper lip.
LABIALE SUPERIUS LATERALIS (ls')
The point on the upper vermilion border directly inferior to subalare.
LABIOMENTAL ANGLE (li-sl-pg)
Measured between pogonion, labiale inferius and sublabiale.
LACRIMAL BONE
A thin scalelike bone, roughly resembling a fingernail in size and shape, at the anterior part of the medial wall of the orbit, articulating with the frontal and ethmoidal bones and the maxilla and inferior nasal concha.
LACRIMALE
A paired point on the medial wall of the orbit at the intersection of the posterior lacrimal crest and the frontolacrimal suture. It is posterior to dacryon and maxillofrontale.
LADOGAN
= Lappoid, in Coon's typology.
LAGID
Indianid type. Medium to small, moderately stocky dolicho-mesocephals native to the mountainous areas of southeastern Brazil, southern Chile (and at much lower frequency) in Argentina, Paraguay and the Brazilian jungle. The Lagid type is characterized by strong supraorbital bulge, a skeletally robust face and broad cheekbones, and an absence of clear facial flatness. The eyelids are narrow, but there are few obvious Mongolid eye features. The nose is broad, straight or concave, with a clearly retracted root, the hair is smooth or wavy and the skin is light brown with a yellow or coppery tone. The absorption of a local australiform strain, the presence of which predates the Mongolid immigration, may be involved (cf. Luzia).

Lagid (after Glowatzki)
LAMBDA (l)
The point where the two branches of the lambdoidal suture meet with the sagittal suture. The determination of this point is uncertain in cases with strongly serrated sutures, as well as cases where sutures are totally obliterated. Locating lambda may be further complicated in crania with Wormian or sutural bones at the apex of the occipital squama. In such cases the general direction of the two branches of the lambdoidal sutures is determined and two straight lines are projected along the branches of the suture placing lambda at the point where these lines meet with one another and with the sagittal suture.
LAMBDOID
Pertaining to the region of lambda.
LAMBDOID FLATTENING
An inheritable and non-artificial flattening or depression of the segment of the sagittal suture of the skull immediately above lambda.
LAPPID (Lappish (Coon); Scando-Lappid race (Lundman))
Borealized, infantilized and hyperbrachycephalic type of mostly Lappoid derivation, somewhat influenced by Mongolid. This type is associated with the Saami ("Lapps") of northern Scandinavia.
 
A Swedish Lapp            Lappid skull
LAPPOID (Ladogan (Coon); Uralid)
Partially reduced, incipiently Mongoloid brachycephal of the eastern forests, seldom found in its true form, but constituting an important substrate in eastern Europe, Russia, and the Baltic nations (the East-Baltid type is a more or less stabilized blend of Baltid and Lappoid). The Lappoid type belongs to the larger Upper Paleolithic group, and is probably related to Europid Cro-Magnoids on one hand, and Mongolids on the other (i.e. as an evolutionary intermediate, rather than a cross).

"Ladogan" (from The Races of Europe by Carleton S. Coon)
LAPPONOID
In Czekanowski's typology, all reduced European brachycephals, including Alpinid as well as Lappid.
LARSEN, CARL FREDRIK
SNPA account here.
LATERAL
Away from the midline.
LATERAL FACE HEIGHT (ex-go)
The distance between exocanthion and gonion.
LATERAL LIP HEIGHT (sbal-ls')
The distance between subalare and labiale superius lateralis.
LEIOTRICHI
One of the two “macroraces” of Huxley, including “Amphinesians” (Polynesids), “Americans” (Indianids), “Melanochroi” (darker-pigmented Europids), “Xanthochroi” (lighter-pigmented Europids), “Australians” (Australids), “Esquimaux” (Eskimids), and “Mongolians” (Mongolids). Cf. Ulotrichi.
LENGTH-HEIGHT INDEX (L.H.I)
maximum head height * 100
     maximum head length
According to Martin:
L.H.I.           - 69.9 = chamaecephalic (low-headed)
L.H.I.    70.0 - 74.9 = orthocephalic (of moderate height)
L.H.I.    75.0 -        = hypsicephalic (high-headed)
LEPTENE (leptous)
Possessing an upper facial index of 55.0 - 55.9; long-/narrow-upper-faced.
LEPTOMORPHIC
Approaching the constitution of a leptosome (the opposite of pyknomorphic).
LEPTOPROSOPIC
Possessing a facial index of 90.0 - 94.9; long-/narrow-faced.
LEPTORRHINE
Possessing a nasal index of 47.0 or less; narrow-nosed.
LEPTOSOME
A slender individual (the opposite of a pyknic).
LIEBIG’S LAW
The law which states that in biological evolution, the processes of adaptation and selection respond to the given minimal potentialities of the environment.
LINE
An evolutionary sequence of species passing through two or more grades.
LITORID
Atlanto-Mediterranid-Taurid (Armenoid/Dinaroid) mixed type.
LITTORAL EUROPEAN
= Atlanto-Mediterranid, in Deniker's typology.
LOCUS
The position of a gene on a chromosome.
LOWER EYELID HEIGHT (pi-or)
The distance between palpebrale inferius and orbitale.
LOWER FACE DEPTH (gn-t)
Measured on the left and right sides of the face using spreading calipers. Position the anterior tip of the calipers at the anterior point of the gnathion, and lightly touch the traguswith the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.
LOWER FACE HEIGHT (sn-gn)
The distance between subnasale and gnathion.
LOWER FACE INCLINATION (sn-pg)
Measured between pogonion and subnasale.
LOWER LIP HEIGHT (sto-sl)
The distance between stomion and sublabiale.
LOWER LIP INCLINATION (li-sl)
Measured between sublabiale and labiale inferius.
LOWER THIRD FACE INCLINATION (li-pg)
Measured between pogonion and labiale inferius.
LOWER VERMILION HEIGHT (sto-li)
The distance between stomion and labiale inferius.
LUNDBORG, HERMAN
[entry pending]
LUNDMAN, BERTIL J.
SNPA account here.

Bertil Lundman
LUZIA (Lapa Vermelha IV Hominid 1)
Female skeletal remains found in 1975 in Brazil, but only recently (1995) investigated. Dated to 12,500-11,500 BP, the find has evoked scientific and popular interest, due to the fact that Luzia has been found to lack Mongolid (Indianid) craniofacial features, and is most similar to modern long-headed Australids and Melanesids. The implication is that a South American population of generalized Pleistocene sapiens morphology preceded the invasion of Mongolids. Since the time of Luzia's discovery, more than 50 similar crania have been unearthed in nearby Brazilian sites. Cf. Kennewick Man.

Luzia's skull                                                                                          Facial reconstruction


Part 2







M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W   X   Y   Z

M
MALARS
= zygomatic bones.
MALAYID
= Nesid.
MALID
Veddid subvariety of the southern Indian inlands, showing Negritid admixture.

Malid woman
MALOCCLUSION
Misalignment of teeth and or incorrect relation between the teeth of the two dental arches, cf. occlusion. Types of malocclusion include prognathism and retrognathism.
MANDIBLE
The bone forming the lower jaw; the largest and strongest bone of the face, presenting a body and a pair of rami, which articulate with the skull at the tempromandibular joints.
MANDIBULAR ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-gn-t)
Measured in relation to gnathion and the tragia.
MANDIBULAR BODY HEIGHT
Use the same technique as when measuring the height of the mandibular symphysis, but in a vertical plane, between the first and second molars. Measure with sliding calipers.
MANDIBULAR BODY LENGTH (gn-go)
Measured between gnathion and gonion.
MANDIBULAR DEPTH (gn-t)
Measured between gonion and tragion.
MANDIBULAR RAMUS HEIGHT (go-cdl)
Measured between gonion and condylion laterale.
MANDIBULAR SYMPHYSIS HEIGHT (gn-id)
Measured from gnathion to infradentale with sliding calipers.

Measuring the height of
the mandibular symphysis
MARGID (Sonorid (Biasutti))
Indianid type. Medium-sized, robust dolicho-mesocephals of California and Sonara, and (at much lower frequency) in Mexico, the Rocky Mountains (Shoshons), Florida and along the East Coast north to Newfoundland. The Margid type is characterized by a supraorbital bulge, a broad but not flat face, small eyelid slits (without Mongolid characteristics), a medium-broad to broad, moderately prominent straight or concave nose with a clearly retracted root, smooth hair and dark brown skin with slightly red tone. Lundman proposed a further subdivision of Margid into Californid and Mexicid types.

Margid
MASTOIDALE
A paired point at the inferior tip of the mastoid process. It is used to measure mastoid length.
MASTOID CRESTS
= supramastoid ridges.
MASTOID PROCESS
The mastoid portion of the temporal bone.
MAXILLAE
Paired bones uniting to form the upper jawbone. The maxillae atriculate with every bone of the face except the mandible, or lower jawbone.
MAXILLARY ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-sn-t)
Measured in relation to subnasale and the tragia.
MAXILLARY DEPTH (sn-t)
Measured between tragion and subnasale.
MAXILLARY PROGNATHISM
Protrusion of the maxilla. Maxillary prognathism affects a large area of the face, causing it to jut out. Cf. prognathism.
MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR BREADTH (ecm-ecm) (palatal breadth)
Between the ectomolares. The distance between the external surfaces of the alveolar border, usually, opposite the second molar teeth. Measured with sliding or hinge calipers. If there are any exostoses (bony growths projecting outward) on the border they are to be avoided by placing the ends of the calipers in an unaffected area.
MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR INDEX
maxillo-alveolar breadth * 100
       maxillo-alveolar length
           - 109.99 = dolichuranial (long-/narrow-palated)
110.00 - 114.99 = mesuranial (of moderate palatal form)
115.00 -            = brachyuranial (broad-/short-palated)

Maxillo-alveolar index
MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR LENGTH (pr-alv) (palatal length)
Between prosthion and alveolon. Measured with sliding or hinge calipers. Place one end of the calipers on prosthion and the other on a straight wire, knitting needle or wood rod placed across the posterior edges of the alveolar processes (alveolon) of the two sides.
MAXILLOFRONTALE (mf)
A paired point at the intersection of the anterior lacrimal crest (on the frontal process of the maxilla) and the frontomaxillary suture. It is on the medial margin of the orbit and can be used to measure orbital width. To locate maxillofrontale, extend the medial edge of the eye orbit with a pencil line until the line crosses the fronto-maxillary suture.
MAXIMUM BIPARIETAL BREADTH
The maximum breadth of the skull taken above the supramastoid crests.
MAXIMUM CRANIAL BREADTH/WIDTH
= maximum head breadth
MAXIMUM CRANIAL LENGTH
= maximum head length
MAXIMUM FACIAL BREADTH (zy-zy) (bizygomatic diameter)
Measured with sliding or spreading calipers. By palpation locate the most lateral point of the zygomatic arch with the tips of index fingers and place the caliper tips on the arches with enough pressure to feel the bone; move the calipers back and forth, up and down until scale shows maximum reading.

Maximum facial breadth
MAXIMUM FRONTAL BREADTH (maximum frontal diameter)
The distance between the lower anterior extremities of the frontal bone at the fronto-malar junctures. Measured with spreading or sliding calipers.
MAXIMUM HEAD BREADTH (eu-eu) (maximum cranial breadth)
The maximum width or breadth between the parietal bones perpendicular to the median sagittal plane is instrumentally determined as both ends of the spreading calipers are moved back and forth on the sides of the skull, above the supramastoid crest until the maximum width is located. If measuring skeletally, be careful of skulls with warped temporal bones; sometimes the temporals have spread out and width should not be taken from these.

Maximum head breadth
MAXIMUM HEAD HEIGHT
On the living the height measurement is the auricular height. On the skull the basion-bregma height is usually employed.
MAXIMUM HEAD LENGTH (g-op)
Place one end of the spreading calipers on glabella and support it with your finger. With the other end, locate the most posterior point on the midline (opisthocranion) and record length in millimetres. Conventional technique keeps calipers along a sagittal midline; however, in patients with plagiocephaly, the posterior point of the skull may not be in the midline of the cranium; for clinical purposes take this measurement at the most posterior location.

Maximum head length
MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF THE BODY OF THE LOWER JAW
The maximum separation of the internal and external surfaces of the bone in the plane between the first and second molars. Measure with spreading calipers.
MEDIAL
Toward the midline.
MEDIAN SAGITTAL PLANE (midsagittal plane)
A vertical plane that passes through the center of the body, dividing it into right and left sides.
MEDITERRANID (Westisch ("Western", Günther))
A para-family of mostly brunet Europid types, all more or less dolichocephalic, orthognathous, meso- to leptorrhine, narrow-faced, fine-boned, and of medium head size. Mediterranids can be short-, medium- or tall-statured. The Mediterranid family, by no means a tightly knit group, subsumes the majority of peoples living in a belt running west to east from the Iberian peninsula and southern Italy, and throughout North Africa and the Black Sea area. Some anthropologists include Orientalids and even Indids in this already sprawling category. Some generally recognized Mediterranid types are Atlanto-Mediterranid, Gracile-Mediterranid and Pontid. The term is also used more specifically to refer to theGracile-Mediterranid variety.
MEGALITHIC
The prehistoric skeletal type, so named by Coon, which is reflected in the living Atlanto-Mediterranid type.
MELANESID (Oceanic Negroid (Coon))
Oceanian racial type of the Melanesian aborgines, considered members of the greater "Australoid" group, however the relation to Australid and Veddid etc. is uncertain and provisional. Melanesids are sometimes mistaken for Negrids, but the resemblance is actually more remote. Subtypes: Neo-Melanesid and Paleo-Melanesid.
MELANID
Similar (and partially synonymous) to Indo-Melanid, with greater Veddid admixture.
MELANIN
The dark pigment, present in the skin, hair and eyes, the varying levels of which constitute the main reason for the great variation in human pigmentation. Cf. blondism, depigmentation.
MELANOCHROI
“Dark whites” from North Africa and southern Europe to India, in Huxley’s typology. They and the Xanthochroi constitute the two main branches of the white (“Caucasic”) race, according to his (rather outdated) system.
MENDEL, GREGOR JOHANN
(1822 – 1884) An Augustinian monk who showed that the inheritance of traits in living organisms follows particular laws (later known as Mendelian laws). Mendel is widely recognized as the "father ofgenetics", as his studies in heredity prompted the foundation of the discipline.

Gregor Johann Mendel
MENDELISM (Mendelian inheritance)
The whole body of principles of heredity formulated by Mendel, that represent the basis of genetics.
MENTON
= gnathion.
MESATICEPHALIC
= mesocephalic; seldom used.
MESENE (mesial)
Possessing an upper facial index of 50.0 to 54.9; of moderate upper facial form.
MESOCEPHALIC (mesaticephalic)
Possessing a cephalic index of 75.0 to 79.9 (77.78 to 80.00 in the French system); intermediate in head form. Mesocephaly is the nominal form, and a mesocephalic individual is referred to as a mesocephal.
MESOCONCH
Possessing an orbital index of 83.0 to 88.9; of moderate or intermediate orbital form.
MESOCRANIAL
Possessing a cranial index of 75.0 to 79.9; of moderate or intermediate skull form.
MESOGNATHOUS
Possessing a slightly protruding facial profile, with an angle of 80-84,9°.
MESOMORPHIC
Intermediate between leptomorphic and pyknomorphic.
MESOPROSOPIC
Possessing a facial index of 84.0 to 87.9; moderate in facial form.
MESORRHINE
Possessing a nasal index of 47.1 - 51.0; of moderate nasal proportions.
METOPIC EMINENCE
= frontal boss.
MEXICID
Subvariety of Margid (an Indianid type), in Lundman's typology.
MID FACE DEPTH (sn-t)
Measured on the right and left sides of the face using spreading calipers. Position the anterior tip of the calipers at the subnasale, and touch the tragus with the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.
MIDDLE-SINID (Kiangid (Lundman); Mittelsinid (German sp.))
Sinid subtype. Really more of a collective term than an actual typological designation, referring to intermediate North- and South-Sinid populations.

Middle-Sinid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
MIDSAGITTAL PLANE
= median sagittal plane.
MINCOPIES
= Andamanids, in the typology of Huxley.
MINIMUM BREADTH OF ASCENDING RAMUS
Minimum distance between the anterior and posterior borders of the ascending ramus, measured with sliding calipers. Can be taken on either right or left but left is standard for comparison.
MINIMUM FRONTAL BREADTH (ft-ft) (minimum frontal diameter)
Measured by spreading or sliding calipers. By palpation with index fingers, identify temporal crests of frontal bone; continue along crests to the deepest (most medial) points of curves superior to the superior orbital rims. Make sure caliper tips do not slip into the temporal fossae.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (mtDNA)
DNA found in the mitochondrion, a small round body found in most cells. Because mitochondria are generally carried in egg cells but not in sperm, mtDNA is passed to offspring from mothers, but not fathers. Unlike nuclear DNA, mtDNA changes little between parent and offspring, and since the mutation rate is easily measured, it is constantly used by population geneticists for tracking matrilineages.
MITTELSINID
= Middle-Sinid, German sp.
MODERN SYNTHESIS
= Neo-Darwinism.
MONGOLID (Homo sapiens asiaticus; Mongolian or Yellow race (Blumenbach; excluding Indianids))
One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens; characterized by a generally short stature, a pyknic build and short legs, a flattish face, prominent cheekbones, high orbits,ortho- or mesognathy (the latter often the result of alveolar prognathism), narrow eyes (typically featuring epicanthus, but this is not an exclusive feature), usually snubbed or concave (but also straight and even convex) noses, and full lips. The teeth are characterized by sinodonty. Face and body hair is very weak, and head hair is usually straight, sometimes gently waving, and black to very dark-brown in color. The eyes are dark, and the skin color varies between very light and swarthy. Mongolids are found in Siberia (e.g.Sibirid), Chukotka-Kamchatka, Turkestan, Mongolia (e.g. Tungid), Manchuria, Korea, Japan, China (e.g. Sinid), Tibet, Nepal, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Indochina (e.g.Paleo-Mongolids, who are at least partially non-Mongolid), Taiwan, the Phillipines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Oceania, Madagascar, North America, South America, and the other surrounding islands of these areas (Indianids, who are diverse, and significantly derived from Asian Mongolids).

Mongolid skull (male)
MONGOLOID
Resembling or approaching Mongolid; characterized by Mongolid-specific features.
MONOTYPIC
Of a species, having no geographical races. Cf. polytypic.
MONTANDON, GEORGES
(1879-1944) A French anthropologist. He is infamous for having provided certificates of "Aryanness" during the Nazi occupation, and he also claimed to have evidence for a Bigfoot-like simian inhabiting the jungles of South America.

Georges Montandon
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS
Non-metrical, observational attributes of the human body.
MORPHOLOGICAL FACE HEIGHT (n-gn) (total face height)
Meausured with sliding calipers. Place the fixed tip of the calipers at the subject's gnathion, slide the moveable end superiorly until it contacts nasion.
MORPHOLOGY
The branch of biology which deals with the form and structure of organisms, without consideration of function. The term also applies to the form and structure of the organism itself (=phenotype).
MORPHOTYPE
Morphologically distinguishable portions of populations of a single taxon. Cf. phenotype.
MTEBID
= Caucasid, in Lundman's typology; the name is derived from Georgian mtebi, "mountain region".
MULTI-REGIONAL HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis which states that Homo sapiens evolved from several different groups of Homo erectus in several places throughout the world. Cf. Out of Africa Hypothesis.
MURRAYIAN
Australid subtype of a heavy and thickset variety, characterized by light brown skin, wavy hair, and significant pilous growth. Similarities to the Ainuids of Japan have been considered. The Murrayians are associated by some with an alleged second wave of Australian aborigines (following that of the Barrineans) who survived in the Murray Basin and on the east, south and west coasts at the time of European settlement.
MUTATION
Change in the structure of a gene caused by some external agent.
MUTATION RATE
The chance of a mutation occurring in an organism or gene in each generation.

N
NASAL BONE
Small oblong bones that meet at the middle and superior part of the face; their fusion forms the superior part of the bridge of the nose.
NASAL BRIDGE LENGTH (n-prn)
Measured between nasion and pronasale.
NASAL EMINENCE
= glabella.
NASAL INDEX (N.I.)
nose width * 100
    nose height
According to the Frankfort Agreement:
N.I.        - 47.0 = leptorrhine (narrow-nosed)
N.I. 47.1 - 51.0 = mesorrhine (having a nose of moderathe width)
N.I. 51.1 - 58.0 = platyrrhine (wide-nosed)
N.I. 58.1 -        = hyperplatyrrhine (very wide-nosed)
According to Broca:
N.I.     < 48 = leptorrhine
N.I. 48 - 53 = mesorrhine
N.I. 53 - 58 = platyrrhine

Nasal index
NASAL MIDLINE (m')
The midline of the bridge of the nose.
NASAL ROOT HEIGHT (en-m')
Measured between endocanthion and the nasal midline.
NASAL ROOT SLOPE (en-m')
Measured using endocanthion and the nasal midline.
NASAL ROOT WIDTH (mf-mf)
The breadth of the nasal root, measured between the maxillofrontales.
NASAL TIP PROTRUSION (sn-prn)
The extent of protrusion of the tip of the nose, measured between subnasale and pronasale.
NASIO-BREGMATIC ARC
The distance, on the external surface of the skull in a sagittal line, between nasion and bregma; the sagittal arc of the frontal bone.
NASION (n)
The midpoint on the nasofrontal suture; the root of the nose.
NASION DEPRESSION
The depression in the facial profile below glabella, in the region of nasion.
NASO-LABIAL FOLDS
The creases running from the nasal wings to the corners of the mouth, and delimiting the area of the integumental upper lip.
NASOSPINALE (ns)
The lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture as projected in the mid-sagittal plane. In crania with slight to moderate development of the anterior nasal spine, this point is easily determined by connecting the lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture right and left of the nasal spine. Nasospinale is located wherever this line is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane at the base of the nasal spine. If the nasal spine is well developed, mark the point of nasospinale on the lateral wall of the projecting nasal spine. However, if the nasal spine is at or below the line connecting the lowest point on the inferior margins of the aperture lowest point on the nasospinale is found on the upper margin of the nasal spine.
NATURAL SELECTION
The mechanism of evolutionary change first articulated by Charles Darwin; refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals. Cf. fitness, sexual selection.
NEGRID (Africoid; Congoid (Coon); Ethiopian or Black race (Blumenbach); Homo sapiens afer; Negroid)
One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens, indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa. Negrids are characterized by dolichocephaly (excepting Paleo-Negrids and someBambutids), prognathism, chamaerrhiny, dark brown to blue-black skin and frizzy black hair. There are a series of subvarieties or clinal end-types, including Sudanid ("standard" Negrid), Paleo-Negrid, Nilotid, Bambutid, Kafrid and Aethiopid.

Negrid skull (male)
NEGRILLO
African Pygmy, cf. Bambutid.
NEGRITID (Asian Pygmid)
The type of the so-called Negritos, pygmy-sized, dark-skinned aborigines of southeastern Asia. Negritids are found in the Philippines (the Aeta), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (the Andamanid subvariety), the Malay Peninsula (the Semang), and elsewhere, and are considered the descendants of the earliest sapiens settlers of southeastern Asia.

Negrito from Zambales (the Philippines)
NEGROID
Resembling or approaching Negrid.
NEO-DANUBIAN (Oriental (Deniker))
According to Coon, a brachycephalic, depigmented blend of Lappoid (Ladogan, in his typology) and Danubian (Mediterranid) elements, common throughout the populations of eastern Europe.
NEO-DARWINISM (Modern Synthesis)
The larger body of evolutionary thought that was inspired by the unification of natural selection and Mendelism.
NEO-MELANESID
Melanesid subtype exemplified by the aboriginal population of New Guinea. Neo-Melanesids are medium-statured, slender and sturdily built, with mesocephalic heads and long faces, high, often convex, yet wide noses with elongated apex, and moderately broad lips. The skin is dark, the hair is dark and frizzly ("negroid"), and the eyes are brown. Facial and body hair development is notable. Neo-Melanesids are prevalent in New Guinea, and are typified by the Papuans. Cf. Paleo-Melanesid.

Neo-Melanesid of
Papua New Guinea
NEO-MONGOLID
Less frequently used term referring to the northern Sinid and Tungid vareties of Mongolid, as opposed to the Paleo-Mongolids of Southeast Asia. "Neo-Mongolids" retain, to greater extent, the true Mongoloid features attained through cold adaptation in Northeast Asia during the last Ice Age.
NEOTENY
Evolutionary process by which the physiological development is slowed or delayed, resulting in paedomorhosis.
NESID (Malayid)
Paleo-Mongolid variety of the Southeast Asian islands (as opposed to the mainland; Gr. νησος = “island”). Nesids are found throughout the Malay Archipelago. Subtypes: Deutero-Malayid, Proto-Malayid. Cf. Palaungid.

Balinese girls of standard Nesid type (after Vogel)
NEW HOLLAND RACE
= Australid, in the typology of Agassiz.
NICHE
The limited portions of the environment, in terms of space, resources, etc., that a species fits and/or that it requires for its survival and reproductive success.
NILOTID
Negrid subtype, partially influenced by Europid, and associated with the upper Nile area. They are extremely tall and long-legged, long- and narrow-skulled and quite long-faced, with gracile features. The interorbital distance is small, the nose is narrow, straight and high-rooted, with characteristically Negrid inflation of the nostrils, yet not at all broad. The lips are thinner than those of more typical Negrids (e.g. Sudanids), and there is no prognathy. The Nilotid chin is strong, and the ears are small. The skin is very dark.

Nilotid youth
NORDALPINOID
= Borreby.
NORDICIZATION
Evolutionary tendency in a Nordid morphological direction. A popular term of little practical value.
NORDID (Nordic)
A group of strongly depigmented Northern European dolicho-mesocephalic leptomorphs, whose similarities are partially the result of shared origins, partially of convergent evolution. There are three generally recognized Nordid types: the classic Hallstatt Nordid, the northwestern European Keltic Nordid, and the eastern European East-Nordid. For some brief speculation on the topic of Nordid origins, please read the introduction to The Nordish Gallery.

Nordid skull
NORDIFORM
Resembling or approaching the Nordid form in certain respects.
NORDISH
Northern European Europid para-group of Cro-Magnids and Nordids, all mostly tall-statured and depigmented, and cohabitant in relative intermixture. Not primarily a phylogenetic entity.
NORDOID
Similar or related to Nordid.
NORDO-MEDITERRANID
Cf. "Atlantid".
NORID (Sub-Adriatic (Deniker))
Nordid altered by Dinarid admixture; the term Noric was coined by Lebzelter. Norids are the prevalent type in Austria, and are also common in northern France and adjacent areas. Coon, who theorized that Nordids are essentially depigmented Mediterranids, suggested that the formation of Norids did not necessitate Dinarid admixture, merely the process ofdinaricization upon a depigmented Mediterranid population. SNPA account here.

Norid from Carinthia
NORTH-ATLANTID (~ Northwestern (Deniker))
Predominantly Nordid (Keltic Nordid) blend with an Atlanto-Mediterranid strain. North-Atlantids are typically dark-haired and light-eyed, and constitute an important element in the British Isles, and particularly in Wales. SNPA account here.

North-Atlantid
NORTH-INDID (Indo-Afghan (Deniker); Nordindid (German sp.))
Northwestern Indid subtype characterized by relatively tall stature, dolichocephaly, a head height which is comparatively smaller than that of the Gracile-Indid type, and a long, prominent and leptorrhine nose. The skin color varies between rosy white and light brown, the hair is straight and varies in shade between chestnut and brown, and the eye color varies between gray-blue and light brown. The North-Indid morphology is typical of the Sikhs and the Brahmin, and the type is transitional to the Iranid variety.

North-Indid
NORTH-PONTID
Sometimes used of Nordid/Corded-Pontid intermediates, typical of e.g. the Ukrainian population.
NORTH-SINID (Hoid (Lundman); Nordsinid (German sp.))
Sinid subtype. North-Sinids are characterized by relatively great stature, narrow faces and noses, low cephalic indices, high height-length indices, moderate amounts of subcutaneous fat and relatively light pigmentation. North-Sinids are found in Northern China (Khitaid subtype) and Korea (Chosonid subtype).

North-Sinid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
NORTHWESTERN
In Deniker's typology, a blue-eyed, dark-haired element in the Irish population, which he considered an Atlanto-Mediterranid type. It is more or less synonymous with North-Atlantid.
NOSE HEIGHT (n-sn) (nasal height)
On the skull, from nasion to the lower borders of the piriform opening; on the living, from nasion to the lowest point on the posterior border of the nasal septum, where it joins the upper lip. Place the fixed point of the sliding calipers at nasion, and with the movable point obtain the mean of the lowest points of the right and left nasal margins (nasospinale).
NOSE WIDTH (al-al) (nasal breadth, columella width)
The maximum breadth of the nasal aperture between the anterior surfaces of its lateral margins. Measured at right angle to the height.
NOSTRIL FLOOR WIDTH (sbal-sn) (ala thickness)
The breadth of the nostril floor, measured between subalare and subnasale.
NUCHAL
Pertaining to the neck.
NUCLEAR DNA
DNA contained within a nucleus of eukaryotic organisms. In most cases it encodes more of the genome than the mitochondrial DNA, and is passed sexually rather than matrilineally.

O
OBELION
The point on the sagittal suture between the two parietal foramina.
OBERCASSEL
Skeletal remains found in 1914 in Obercassel, near Bonn (Germany). The stature of Obercassel was probably ~170 cm. The skull, which may be called Cro-Magnoid, is large,dolicho- and orthocranial, with a rounded occipital region. The face is low, the browridges are prominent, and the bizygomatic diameter is enormous. The chin is protruding, and there is no prognathism. In life, the nose of Obercassel was leptorrhine and beak-like.

Obercassel
OCCIPITAL
Pertaining to the occipital bone.
OCCIPITAL BUN (chignon)
Prominent bulge or projection of the occipital bone. The term is most often used in connection with scientific descriptions of classic Neanderthal crania. While characteristic of many of humankind's earlier relatives, occipital buns are relatively rare in modern sapiens. They do however occur fairly often among Australids, Khoisanids and Lappids, and, interestingly, among Europid inhabitants of Lancashire, UK.

Occipital bun (caption) on a Neanderthal
cranium from Mount Cicero, Italy
OCCIPUT (occipital bone)
A single trapezoid-shaped bone situated at the posterior and inferior part of the cranium, from the foramen magnum to lambda.
OCCIPITAL FLATTENING
A vertical flattening of the occipital bones below lambda; in some cases of hereditary and in others of artificial causation. Cf. planoccipital.
OCCIPITAL TORUS
A pronounced ridging of the superior nuchal line of the occiput.
OCCLUSION
The manner in which the teeth of the upper and lower arches come together when the mouth is closed. Cf. malocclusion.
OCEANIC NEGROID
A term used by Coon (The Origin of Races (1962)) to denote the Melanesid racial type(s).
OLD GERMANIC REIHENGRÄBER TYPE
The large-framed, high-skulled and Cro-Magnid-influenced variety of Iron Age Nordid reflected today e.g. in the Anglo-Saxon and Friterpian types. In northern Germany, such forms are more common thanNordids proper.
OPHYRON (on) (point intersoucilier)
The point at the mid-plane of a line tangent to the upper limits of the eyebrows (sci-sci).
OPISTHION (o)
The point at which the external and internal surfaces of the occipital bone meet on the posterior margin of the foramen magnum in its median plane.
OPISTHOCRANION (op) (opisthocranium)
The most posteriorly protruding point on the back of the braincase, located in the mid-sagittal plane. Opisthocranion almost always falls on the superior squama of the occipital bone, and only occasionally on the external occipital protuberance. Opisthocranion can generally be established while obtaining the measurement of maximum cranial length. However, in some cases where the superior squama forms a partial sphere with glabella as its midpoint, opisthocranion cannot be determined in this manner. In such cases, each point on the partial sphere represents the maximum distance and opisthocranion is located arbitrarily approximately at a point in the middle of the spherical segment.
ORALE (ol)
The single most anterior point on the hard palate where a line drawn lingual to the central incisors intersects the palatal suture. It is used to measure palatal length.
ORBIT
The bony eye socket.
ORBITAL BREADTH
The maximum distance of the orbit from maxillofrontale to the middle of the lateral orbital border (ectoconchion). Measurement can also be taken from dacryon or lacrimale, butmaxillofrontale is preferable since this is most often present. Since bones of the medial wall of the eve orbit are quite fragile, dacryon and lacrimale are often missing in in archaeological specimens. Measured with sliding calipers.
ORBITALE (or)
A paired point at the lowest part of the orbital margin. It is used to define the Frankfort Horizontal Plane and to measure orbital height.
ORBITALE SUPERIUS (os)
The highest point on the margin of the orbit.
ORBITAL HEIGHT (os-or)
The maximum height from the upper to the lower orbital borders perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the orbit and using the middle of the inferior border as a fixed point. Either or both orbits may he measured, but the left is standard. Measured with sliding calipers.
ORBITAL INCLINATION
= eye-fissure inclination.
ORBITAL INDEX
orbital height * 100
    orbital breadth
         - 82.99 = chamaeoconch (wide-orbited)
83.00 - 89.99 = mesoconch (of moderate orbital breadth)
89.00 -          = hypsiconch (narrow-orbited)
ORDER
Taxonomic category of organisms ranking above family and below class.
ORBITO-TRAGIAL DEPTH (ex-t) (orbito-tragial distance; upper cheek depth)
Measured on the left and right sides of the face using spreading calipers. Position the anterior tip of the calipers at the exocanthion, and lightly touch the tragus with the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.
ORIENTAL
In Deniker's typology (race orientale), an eastern European brachycephalic racial type, which Coon calls Neo-Danubian.
ORIENTALID
Middle-Eastern/Central Asiatic Europid type, comprising the southern Arabid and northeastern Iranid varieties (in the typology of von Eickstedt). In some systems it is synomymous with Arabid. Carleton Coon, and others with him, considered all these types to be Mediterranids.
ORKDAL TYPE
A special phenotype associated with central Scandinavian portions of the Trønder gradient, named after the Norwegian village of Orkdal, and exhibiting a predominance of Cordedfeatures.
ORTHOCEPHALIC
Possessing a length-height index of 70.0 - 74.9; of moderate head height. Orthocephaly is the nominal form, and an orthocephalic individual is referred to as a orthocephal.
ORTHOGENESIS
The erroneous idea that species tend to evolve in a fixed direction because of some inherent force driving them to do so.
ORTHOGNATHOUS
Straight-jawed, with an angle of 85-89,9°.
OSTEOLOGY
The study of skeletal material.
ØSTERDAL-TYPE
= Hallstatt Nordid, in Bryn's typology.
OSTEUROPID
= Baltid (including East-Baltid and even Lappoid), in the typology of v. Eickstedt.
OSTISCH ("Eastern")
= Alpinid, in Günther's typology.
OTOBASION INFERIUS (obi)
The lowest point of attachment of the exteral ear to the head.
OTOBASION SUPERIUS (obs)
The highest point of attachment of the exteral ear to the head.
OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS (African Replacement Hypothesis)
The hypothesis which states that all living humans are descended from a small group of people in Africa, who dispersed into Eurasia, Oceania and America, displacing earlier hominids. Cf. Multi-Regional Hypothesis.
OVER-EXPRESSION
Abnormal expression of a trait in the phenotype of an individual, resulting from the presence of extra chromosomes or copies of the genes responsible for the trait. For example, Down syndrome traits are likely the consequence of inheriting three chromosome 21's instead of the usual two. Apparently, the genes on the extra chromosome are also expressed.
OVERSPECIALIZED
Adapted so specifically to a particular niche that the genetic variation necessary to meet changing conditions has been lost. Cf. specialized.

P
PACIFIC RACE
= Polynesid, in the typology of Agassiz.
PACIFID (Western American Temperate Race (Agassiz, roughly equivalent))
Indianid type. Medium to tall, robust brachycephals of the western Canadian coast and eastern Alaska, as well as the outskirts of the northwestern USA and the Rio Grande (Navajo, Apache). Pacifids are characterized by broad, rectangular faces, scarcity of Mongolid eye features, medium-broad straight or slightly convex, striking noses, smooth or slightly wavy hair (sporadically lightened), moderately strong beard and body hair growth and light brownish skin.

Pacifid Navajo (after
Knußmann)
PAEDOMORPHOSIS (foetalization)
Retention of juvenile (infantile) physical characteristics well into maturity. Neoteny/foetalization is the evolutionary process by which paedomorphosis is attained. Paedomorphous (or paedomorphic) characteristics in women are widely acknowledged as desirable by men.
PALATAL BREADTH
= maxillo-alveolar breadth.
PALATAL LENGTH
= maxillo-alveolar length.
PALATAL TORUS
A thickening and downward projection of the central sagittal line marking the junction of the two sides of the palate.
PALATINE BONE
One of two irregularly shaped bones (L-shaped) forming the posterior part of the hard palate, the lateral wall of the nasal fossa between the medial pterygoid plate and the maxilla, and the posterior part of the floor of the orbit; the posterior part of the hard palate, which separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity, is formed by the horizontal plates.
PALAUNGID
Paleo-Mongolid variety of mainland Southeast Asia. Cf. Nesid.

Vietnamese Palaungid
(after Knußmann)
PALEOANTHROPOLOGY
The interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominids - their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, etc.
PALEO-ATLANTID
Umbrella-term, coined by Lundman, denoting any strongly pigmented (European) Cro-Magnid/Cro-Magnoid. One example of Paleo-Atlantid is the Scandinavian Tydal type. A similar type is said to inhabit parts of Scotland. Paleo-Atlantids do not comprise an important element in any northern European population.
PALEO-INDID
Less common term referring to the Veddid and Melanid (Indid-mixed Veddid) elements in the population of the Indian Subcontinent.
PALEO-MELANESID
Melanesid subtype prevalent among the aboriginal population of the Melanesian Archipelago, especially New Caledonia. Paleo-Melanesids are medium-statured and stocky (pyknomorphic). The heads are low and mesocephalic, the faces likewise low and coarse-featured, with broad and fleshy noses, big mouths with thick, non-bulging lips, receding chins, and deep-set eyes. The skin is rather dark, the hair is black and spiral-shaped, and the eyes are brown. Cf. Neo-Melanesid.

Paleo-Melanesid of
New Caledonia (after
Knußmann)
PALEO-MONGOLID (Austrid; Tropical Asiatic Race (Agassiz); Palaemongolid (German sp.))
Paedomorphic-infantile, predominantly Mongolid type of southeastern Asia. Paleo-Mongolids have absorbed varying amounts of Australid, Veddid and Negritid. They are characterized by small stature, a low and round face, a wide nose, full lips, a receding chin, and a relatively low frequency of epicanthus. Notable subtypes are Nesid andPalaungid.

Paleo-Mongolid
PALEO-NEGRID (Palaenegrid (German sp.))
Negrid subtype. The reduced product of interbreeding between Negrids and Bambutids. Paleo-Negrids are characterized by medium to small stature, relatively long trunks, short arms and legs, broad build, short necks and small hands and feet. The head is round and relatively brachycephalic, with vaulted to slightly rounded occiput. The face is wide and relatively low - with men it often approaches a square shape, whereas with women it is usually more rounded. The zygomatic bones are protruding, the nose is small, broad and low-rooted with fleshy, vaulted nostrils, the jaw is prognathous, the chin weak and the lips thick. Beard and body hair growth is often stronger than with other races. The hair is dense, frizzy, short and black. The skin is thick and dark brown, the lips blue-reddish. The eyes are dark-brown.

Paleo-Negrid
PALEO-SARDINIAN
= Berid, in Biasutti's typology.
PALEO-SIBERIAN
= East-Sibirid.
PALEOSPECIES
Group of similar fossils considered to be members of the same species because the range of their morphological variation does not exceed the range of variation of a livingspecies.
PALPATION
Feeling with the finger or fingers to locate anatomical landmarks.
PALPEBRALE INFERIUS (pi)
The lowest point in the middle of the margin of the lower eyelid.
PALPEBRALE SUPERIUS (ps)
The highest point on the upper margin of the middle portion of the eyelid.
PALPEBRAL OPENING
The distance between the eyelids when the eye is open.
PALPEBRONASAL FOLD
= epicanthic fold.
PAMIR-FERGANA TYPE
= Pamirid, in the typology of Yarkho (1933).
PAMIRID (Central Asian Interstream type; Pamir-Fergana type (Yarkho); Pamiro-Ferganid)
According to von Eickstedt's typology, Pamirids are relatively unmixed Europid Turanids (as opposed to Turanids showing Mongolid admixture, namely Aralids). They are verybrachycephalic (CI > 85), and may be considered Alpinoid in some features, Taurid in others (they are curvoccipital rather than planoccipital). The Pamirid constitutes the prinicipal type of the Tajiks.

Pamirid ("Turanid"       Pamirid ("Turanid") skull
after Glowatzki)          (after Lundman)
PAMPID (Patagonid)
Indianid subtype; Tall to very tall, broadly-built and robust meso-brachycephals of the Patagonian grasslands, the pampas and the Gran Chaco. Pampids are characterized by a supraorbital bulge, a large, rectangular face with notable facial flatness and narrow eyelid slits with marked "Indian folds". The nose is straight and narrow to medium broad. The hair is smooth, the skin medium to light brown with an olive tone.

Pampid girl of the
Selk'nam/Ona tribe
PANGENESIS
Charles Darwin's incorrect theory about the inheritance of traits. He proposed that hereditary particles in the body are affected by the things an individual does during his or her lifetime. These modified particles were thought to migrate via blood to the reproductive cells and subsequently could be inherited by the next generation. This was a variation of Lamarck's incorrect idea of the "inheritance of acquired characteristics".
PANMIXIS
Random mating throughout a population.
PARALLELISM (parallel evolution)
Similar evolutionary development in different species lines after divergence from a common ancestor that had the initial anatomical feature that led to it. Parallelism is thought to be due primarily to the independent species lines experiencing the same kinds of natural selection pressures. Cf. convergent evolution, homoplasy.
PARAPATRIC SPECIATION
The "mode" of speciation by which a population is dispersed over a large geographic area, with reduced extent of gene flow throughout the population, resulting in hybrid zones between reproductively isolated species.
PARAPHYLETIC GROUP
A set of species containing an ancestral species together with some, but not all, of its descendants. The species included in the group are those that have continued to resemble the ancestor; the excludedspecies have evolved rapidly and no longer resemble their ancestor.
PARIETAL ARC
Measured from nasion anteriorly to bregma posteriorly, using tape (cf. parietal chord).
PARIETAL BONES
One of the two quadrilateral bones on either side of the cranium forming part of the superior and lateral surfaces of the skull, and joining each other in the midline at the sagittal suture. The parietal bones form the greater portion of the sides and roof of the cranial cavity.
PARIETAL CHORD
Measured from nasion anteriorly to bregma posteriorly, using sliding calipers (cf. parietal arc).
PARIETAL SUBTENSE
The highest intermediate point between nasion anteriorly and bregma posteriorly, located with coordinate calipers.
PATAGONID
= Pampid.
PAUDLER
[entry pending]
PERIPATRIC SPECIATION
= peripheral isolate speciation.
PERIPHERAL ISOLATE SPECIATION (peripatric speciation)
A form of allopatric speciation in which the new species is formed from a small population isolated at the edge of the ancestral population's geographic range.

Peripheral isolate speciation
PHALIAN/PHALID
= Dalo-Falid.
PHENETIC CLASSIFICATION
A method of classification in which species are grouped together with other species that they most closely resemble phenotypically.
PHENOTYPE
The observable or detectable characteristics of an individual organism. The detectable expression of a genotype.
PHILTRUM
The vertical groove in the median portion of the upper lip, just above the vermilion border; formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryonic development.
PHILTRUM LENGTH (sn-ls)
The length of the philtrum, measured between subnasale and labiale superius.
PHILTRUM WIDTH (cph-cph)
The breadth of the philtrum, measured between the cristae philtre.
PHYLETIC GRADUALISM
= gradualism.
PHYLOGENY
The tracing of the history of the evolutionary development of a life form; the evolution of a line.
PHYLUM
Taxonomic category ranking above class and below kingdom.
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (biological anthropology)
The study of the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. A partial synonym of "racial anthropology".
PHYSIOGNOMICAL FACE HEIGHT (tr-gn)
The distance between trichion and gnathion.
PILASTRIC INDEX
A measure of shape at the midshaft of the femur, the ratio of the anterior-posterior length to the transverse breadth, multipilied by 100.
PILE-DWELLING
Mediterranid-Alpinid hybrid, in Czekanowski's typology.
PIRIFORM OPENING
The aperture of the nasal passages in the facial skeleton.
PLANID
The western subvariety of Silvid, prevalent in central and northern-central regions of North America (e.g. the Dakota). Cf. Appalacid.
PLANOCCIPITAL
Possessing a flat occiput; the opposite of curvoccipital. Cf. occipital flattening.

Planoccipital (Dinarid) skull              Curvoccipital (Mediterranid) skull
PLATYMERIC INDEX
The ratio of the anteroposterior diameter of the femur to its lateral diameter, multiplied by 100.
PLATYRRHINE
Possessing a nasal index of 51.1 to 58.0; broad-nosed.
PLESIOMORPHIC
= primitive. Cf. apomorphy.
PLICA PALPEBRONASALIS
= epicanthic fold.
POGONION (pg)
The most anterior single point on the median sagittal plane of the mandible; the front of the chin.
POLYCENTRISM
Franz Weidenreich's theory of multiple centers of human evolution connected by a network of genic exchanges.
POLYGENIC TRAIT
Inherited trait that is determined by genes at two or more loci. Simple Mendelian rules of dominance do not apply to the complex interaction of these genes. As a result,phenotypes may appear as apparent blends or intermediate expressions. Skin and hair color are polygenic traits. Many polygenic traits are also influenced by environmental factors.
POLYNESID (Amphinesian Race (Huxley); Pacific Race (Agassiz))
The primary racial type of the Pacific Islands. Polynesids are tall and robust, with medium-high and slightly angular faces, moderately broad lips and nose, and wide eyelid apertures. The skin is light brown, the hair is wavy and black, and the eyes are dark brown. This type is especially prevalent in Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, New Zealand, the Society Isles and the Easter Isles. In Micronesia it is strongly mixed with Melanesids and Paleo-Mongolids.

Polynesid (after Glowatzki)
POLYPHYLETIC GROUP
A set of species descended from more than one common ancestor. The ultimate common ancestor of all species in the group is not a member of the polyphyletic group.
POLYTYPIC
Taxon including several subordinate taxa. A polytypic species, e.g., is a species that occurs in two or more forms (races or subspecies), such as the regionally differentiated Homo sapiens. Cf. monotypic,Rassenkreis.
PONTID (Cherkess type)
Mediterranid subtype. Pontids are found in greatest concentration in southeastern Europe (the Balkans, southern Romania, the Ukraine), and predominate in regions immediately adjacent to the Black Sea (including parts of the Caucasus), after which Bunak named the type (Pontic; to the ancient Greeks, the Black or Euxine Sea was known as Pontos, "the Sea"). The type is tall (yet not as tall as the Atlanto-Mediterranid type) and quite gracile, with smooth facial features, and is characterized by a high skull, a narrow forehead, somewhat narrow apertures of the eyes, and a lighter pigmentation compared to the Mediterranid mean. Cf. North-Pontid.

Bulgarian Pontid
POPULATION
Group of individuals that form a breeding unit.
PORION (po)
Paired points at the most lateral part of the superior margin of the external auditory meatus. It is used to define the Frankfort Horizontal Plane and to measure mastoid length.
PORION-BREGMA HEIGHT (po-b)
Measured with head spanner. Place the two ear rods in the external auditory meatus on the right and left porions and the end of the calibrated bar on bregma. Read porion-bregma height directly from the calibrated bar.
POSITIONAL PLAGIOCEPHALY
Occipital flattening resulting from habitual placement of the infant's head on a hard surface, e.g. a cradle board. Cf. annular constriction, cradling.
POSTAURALE (pa)
The most posterior point on the free margin of the ear.
POSTERIOR (dorsal)
The back side of the body.
POSTORBITAL CONSTRICTION
In superior view, a marked constriction in the skull immediately behind the orbits and a supraorbital torus.
PREADAPTATION
A characteristic evolved by an ancestral species or population that serves an adaptive though different function in a descendant species or population.
PREAURALE (pra)
The point at which a straight line from the postaurale, perpendicular to the long axis of the auricle, meets the base of the auricle.
PŘEDMOST
A series of Aurignacian skulls found at Předmost in Moravia, present-day Slovakia. Dating from ~25,000 BC, they are among the earliest specimens of modern humans ever excavated. They are rather robust, and it has been theorized that their features indicate Neanderthal as well as modern Homo sapiens origin.

Předmost III                    Předmost IV
PRE-PONTID
According to Lundman’s typology, an extraordinary dolichocephalic racial strain, supposedly extinct, but traces may be found in the Balkans.
PRIMITIVE (plesiomorphic; protomorphic)
Pertaining to a trait or combination of traits present in an ancestral form. Cf. progressive.
PROCESS
Projection or outgrowth of tissue from a larger body.
PROGNATHOUS
Possessing forward-projecting jaws; an angle of -79,9°. Negrids, Australids and Veddids exhibit some of the highest degrees of prognathism of modern humans.
PROGRESSIVE
In certain approaches to physical anthropology, progressive is a relative term applied to the antithesis of primitive; "progressive traits" appear evolutionarily removed (i.e. significantly) from those of an ancestral form, as contrasted with traits that more nearly recall the latter (="primitive traits").
PRONASALE (prn)
The most protruded point of the nasal tip.
PROSTHION (pr) (alveon)
The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the maxilla between the central incisors in the mid-sagittal plane. Note that in measuring basion-prosthion length and palate length, prosthion is not positioned on the inferior margin of the advanced bony parts between the incisors, but is more anteriorly located on the anterior surface of the alveolar process. In measuring upper facial height, however, prosthion is located on the inferior tip of the alveolar process. In cases of a defective or resorbed alveolar process, determination of prosthion becomes uncertain or impossible, and upper facial height cannot be measured.
PROTO-MALAYID (Dayakid (Lundman))
Nesid (Paleo-Mongolid) subtype principally associated with the Dayak people of Borneo. Proto-Malayids are mixed with Veddids, Melanesids and Negritids, and retain less of their Mongolid character than do Deutero-Mongolids.
PROTOMORPHIC
= primitive.
PROXIMAL
Closest part nearest the trunk or head.
PTERIC REGION (pt)
The upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid, with the bordering bones – frontal, parietal and temporal.
PTERION
A paired point on the upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid. This is more often a region than a point.
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM (PE, "Punk Eek")
The theory which states that most biological species exhibit little evolutionary change throughout their history, and that when change occurs, it occurs sporadically and over relatively short periods of time.The opposite of gradualism. Cf. stasis.
PUEBLID
A northern subvariety of Centralid, in Biasutti's typology.
PUNNETT SQUARE
Simple graphical method of showing all of the potential combinations of offspring genotypes that can occur and their probability given the parent genotypes. Punnett squares are commonly used by genetics counselors to predict the odds of a couple passing on particular inherited traits.
PYGMID
1. = Bambutid ("African Pygmid"); 2. = Negritid ("Asian Pygmid")
PYGMY
1) An individual of unusually small size; 2) African Pygmy, i.e. Bambutid ("Negrillo", "African Pygmid").
PYKNIC (endomorphic (Sheldon))
A stocky individual (the opposite of a leptosome). Kretschmer considered pyknics to be more likely to develop manic-depressive disorders.
PYKNOMORPHIC
Approaching the constitution of a pyknic (the opposite of leptomorphic).

Q
QIANGID (Tibetid)
The Mongolid subtype of the Tibetans - a blend of mostly Middle-Sinid with Tungid (Kumid subtype) and low-level Europid elements.
QUEENSLAND NEGRITO
= Barrinean.

R
RACE
A much debated term, here largely synonymous with subspecies.
RACISM
The belief that one race is superior to others.
RACES OF EUROPE, THE
Exhaustive single work of physical anthropology published in 1939 by Carleton S. Coon, Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Harvard University. The 700+ page volume was intended as a follow-up to William Z. Ripley's classic of the same title. The entire volume is available in HTML format on this site.
RASSENKREIS ("circle of races")
A polytypic species, i.e. a species composed of geographical races or subspecies, as coined by the Neo-Darwinian ornithologist Bernhard Rensch.
RECOMBINATION
The genetic union of traits originally associated with diverse parental stocks.
RED QUEEN PRINCIPLE
The principle, proposed in 1973 by the evolutionary biologist Leigh van Valen (1935 -) which states that for an evolutionary system, continuing development is needed just in order to maintain its fitness relative to the systems with which it is co-evolving.
RED RACE
= Indianid, in Blumenbach's typology.
REDUCTION
Evolutionary process resulting in a type which is smaller than its ancestral prototype, and which has changed accordingly in certain proportions (infantilization often results).Bambutids (Pygmies) are extreme examples of reduction.
RE-EMERGENCE
The reappearance of an older racial entity through the vehicle of a mixed population by the mechanism of differential selection.
RELATIVE SHOULDER BREADTH
biacromial diameter * 100
                  stature
RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT
sitting height * 100
           stature
RELATIVE SPAN
span * 100
   stature
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
The inability of a population to interbreed with another, the normal definition of a biological species.
REST POSITION
The inclination of a line from the top of the external auditory meatus to the lowest point on the inferior orbital rim when the subject’s head is in normal, relaxed position.
RETROGNATHOUS
Possessing a backward-projecting jaw; An angle of 90+°.
RETZIUS, ANDERS
(1796 - 1860) An acclaimed Swedish professor of anatomy, whose studies of the human cranium and its measurements engendered the concept of cephalic index and the classifications of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic, the import of which has been inseparably tied to the field of physical anthropology ever since.

Anders Retzius
RIPLEY, WILLIAM Z.
American anthropologist. He discarded Deniker's decipartite system (but adopted his use of the term Nordic), and introduced the idea of a tripartite racial typology for Europe, comprising the Nordic (formerly Teutonic), Alpine and Mediterranean races. He considered the Alpine to be the original European race, having originated in Asia before settling in central Europe, and from which the northern (Nordic) and southern (Mediterranean) races had later sprung. Ripley is primarily remembered for his The Races of Europe (1899), in which he outlined his typology using anthropometric measurements.
ROBUST
Term used by physical anthropologists and paleoanthropologists to refer to a big-boned and muscular body (characterized by robusticity). Cf. gracile.
ROMER'S RULE
The generalization that new adaptations are often allowed by evolutionary changes that initially better adapt a species to its old way of life.
RUFOUS; RUFOSITY
Red-haired; red-hairedness.

S
SAGITTAL SUTURE
The suture uniting the two parietal bones.
SAHARID (South-Mediterranean)
A tall, gracile and high-skulled Mediterranid found in the southern Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.

Saharid (after Lundman)
SALTATION
A sudden change from one generation to the next, that is large, or very large, in comparison with the usual variation of an organism.
SANID
Khoisanid subvariety of the Bushmen, characterized by more reduced and infantile features and less Negrid admixture than Khoids.

Sanid woman (after
Knußmann)
SAVOLAXID
According to Lundman’s typology, the easternmost of the two East-Baltid subtypes (the other being Tavastid).
SCANDO-LAPPID RACE
= Lappid, in the typology of Lundman.
SCHREINER, ALETTE
[entry pending]
SCHREINER, KRISTIAN EMIL
[entry pending]
SCHWIDETZKY, ILSE
(1907 - 1997) German anthropologist, among the masters of European statistical physical anthropology. Follow this link for Schwidetzky's racial map of Europe.
SELECTION
= natural selection.
SELECTIVE PRESSURES
Forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals. Cf. natural selection.
SELLION (s)
The deepest point of the nasofrontal angle.
SEMANG
Negritos (members of the Negritid race) of the Malay peninsula, characterized by a stature of less than 1.5 meters, a round or intermediate head form, a low and rounded forehead which projects over the nasal root, a short, depressed and pyramid-shaped nose, moderate to full lips, a poorly developed chin, and often slightly projecting jaws. The eyes, which are a deep brown, are wide open and round, and show no obliquity. The hair is dark brown (nearly black) and tightly curled, and the skin is black or very dark brown. Cf. Aeta, Andamanid.

Semang woman of
Negritid type
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
The hereditary differences in morphology between individuals of different sex within the same species, race or subtype. Sexual dimorphism in humans often involves differences in stature, muscular development and general robusticity. Greater sexual dimorphism equals greater differences.
SEXUAL SELECTION
A type of natural selection that operates on only one sex within a species. It is the result of competition for mates and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits. Cf. fitness.
SHANID
A Paleo-Mongolid and South-Sinid blend, typified by the mostly Burmese Shan.

Shanid (Shan man)
SIBIRID
Arctic Mongolid stock indigenous to Siberia, and comprising the East-Sibirid and West-Sibirid types.
SIGMOID NOTCH
The curved upper surface of the ascending ramus of the mandible between the coronoid process and the condyle.
SILVID (Eastern American Temperate Race (Agassiz, roughly equivalent))
Indianid type, so named by von Eickstedt. Tall and broadly-built, robust mesocephals of the central and eastern Canadian forest regions, Appalachia (the Mohicans, Delawares, and Iroquois) and the prairies of the Midwest (the Dakota). The Silvid type is characterized by a longish, rectangular face with notable facial flatness, a very striking, narrow to medium-broad nose with a convex and sometimes aquiline profile (Lundman described the type as "dinariomorphic", i.e. dinariform). The eyelids are sometimes narrow and slanting, and featuring epicanthus (most common among women and children). The hair is smooth or tight, and the skin light- to medium-brown with a yellowish, reddish or coppery tinge. There are two subvarieties, the western planid and the eastern appalacid.

Silvid (after Glowatzki)
SINID
The most numerous of the Mongolid varieties, characterized by a high and narrow skull and face (however the face is lower than that of the Tungid type), mesognathy, a high frequency of epicanthus, coarse and straight black (sometimes blue-black) hair, and darker skin and thicker lips than Tungids. Sinids are found in China, Tibet, and Korea. Subtypes: North-Sinid, Middle-Sinid, South-Sinid.
SINODONTY
Pertaining to the "Mongolid type" of teeth, characterized by e.g. shovel-shaped incisors, single-rooted upper first premolars, and triple rooted lower first molars. Contrasted with sundadonty.
SITTING HEIGHT
The height of the human body from chair to vertex, taken while the subject is sitting erect.
SITTING HEIGHT INDEX (cormic index)
sitting height * 100
      total stature
SKANDONORDID
= Hallstatt Nordid (in a more general sense than Götatyp), in Lundman's typology.
SKULL
The cranium and the mandible.

Anterior view               Anatomical view
SMALL MEDITERRANEAN
= Gracile-Mediterranid, in the typology of Carleton S. Coon.
SONORID
= Margid, in Biasutti's typology.
SOUTH AMERICAN TEMPERATE RACE
All South American Indianid types, in the typology of Agassiz.
SOUTH-MEDITERRANID
A synonym of Saharid in Lundman’s typology. Alternatively, Mediterranid influenced by Berberid.
SOUTH-SINID (Sudsinid (German sp.))
Sinid subtype. South-Sinids are characterized by wider faces and noses, higher cephalic indices, very high height-length indices, lower fat ratios and medium-short stature.

South-Sinid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
SPAN
The distance between the two middle finger tips when the arms are stretched in opposite directions; maximum arm stretch.
SPECIALIZED
Evolved for a particular function; adapted to a limited range of resources. Cf. generalized, overspecialized.
SPECIATION
The evolution on new biological species.  There are four "modes" of speciation: allopatric, parapatric, sympatric and polyploidy.
SPECIES (biological species)
The basic unit of biodiversity; taxonomic category ranking below genus and above subspecies (race). Biological species are characterized by reproductive isolation.
SPHENOID BONE
A single, irregular, wedge-shaped bone at the base of the skull, which forms a part of the floor of the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae; this bone is referred to as the keystone of the cranial floor because it articulates with all the other cranial bones.
SQUAMA
The flat portion of a cranial bone.
STABILIZING SELECTION
Selection against extreme forms of a trait. In the case of polygenic traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as stature, it would be selection for people who are in the middle of the range and against those who are very tall or very short. The result would be fewer people who are at the extremes in height. In the case of a trait controlled by only two alleles, it would be selection against both homozygotes and for the heterozygote. An example is nature selecting for people who are heterozygous for the sickle cellallele in a malarial environment. Cf. directional selection, disruptive selection.
STAPHYLION (sta)
The single point on the posterior hard palate where the palatal suture is crossed by a line drawn tangent to the curves of the posterior margin of the palatal bones. It is used to measure palatal length.
STASIS
Little or no evolutionary change occurring over a long period of time; cf. punctuated equilibrium.
STEATOPYGIA
Accumulation of fat on the buttocks, a characteristic of Khoisanids and Andamanids, and reported among Bambutids. It is a specifically female trait, but it also occurs, albeit to a much lesser extent, among the men.

Steatopygous female
STOMION (sto) (point buccal)
The midpoint of the labial fissure when the lips are closed naturally.
STRANDID (Keltoïd)
Reduced, infantilized, heavily pigmented (brown-eyed, nearly black-haired, and somewhat "swarthy") brachycephals (C.I. 83) of the western Norwegian coast (especially the northwestern provinces, with a focal point in Sunnmøre). Strandids are typically rather euryprosopic, with mesorrhine, concave noses. Judging from their general bodily attributes, they are undoubtedly the products of alpinization (probably local), but the exact derivation of the type is obscured by the lack of relevant skeletal material. Strandid individuals are not numerous, and are usually mixed with the local Borreby, whence it has been suggested that the Strandid is merely a more completely alpinized variety or end-type of this taller, more robust brachycephal. However, this theory raises the question of pigmentation, as Borrebys are rather depigmented on average. An alternate hypothesis involves thealpinization of a Tydal population. The Strandid type may have ties to the western Norwegian Fosna Culture (ca. 8000 BC - 5000 BC).

Strandid (from Die
Somatologie der
Norweger by K.E.
Schreiner)
SUB-ADRIATIC
= Norid, according to Deniker's typology.
SUBALARE (sbal)
The point on the lower margin of the base of the nasal ala where the ala disappears into the upper lip skin.
SUBAURALE (sba)
The lowest point on the inferior border of the ear lobule.
SUBBRACHYCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 80.01 to 83.33 (according to the French system); moderately round/short/broad-headed.
SUBDOLICHOCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 75.01 to 77.77 (according to the French system); moderately long/narrow-headed.
SUBLABIALE (sl)
The midpoint of the labiomental sulcus.
SUBNASALE (sn) (acanthion)
In the midline, the junction between the lower border of the nasal septum and the cutaneous portion of the upper lip.
SUB-NORDID
In the typologies of Montandon (Subnordique) and Czekanowski, a Nordid altered by Alpinid admixture; predominant in northern France; in Deniker's typology, it signifies a different type. SNPA account here (according to Montandon).
SUBSPECIES
Taxonomic category below the level of species, illustrating the evolutionary tendency towards speciation; subspecies differ morphologically, and there is limited gene flow between different subspecies, but no reproductive isolation. The modern human races and their subdivisions may be considered subspecies of the species Homo sapiens.
SUDANID
Negrid subtype. The "standard Negrid", associated with the general area extending from Senegambia to central Sudan. Sudanids are tall, broad-shouldered, robust and muscular, and are characterized by prognathism, extremely broad and inflated noses with flattened nasal roots, and characteristically bulging lips. The skull is long and narrow (c.i. 73 - 77), high-vaulted, with a strongly projecting occipital region. The forehead is steep and narrow, and the face is large and rather long. The mouth is quite large, and the ears are small. The chin is weak, and sometimes receding. The skin color is rather dark.

Sudanid (after Glowatzki)
SUDETIAN TYPE (Pre-Slavic type (Czekanowski))
According to Güthher, a small-framed, small-headed meso- to brachycephal found mainly in the Czech Republic. It is characterized by an "egg-shaped" skull, pronounced parietal bones, a slightly rounded occiput, mesoprosopy, pronounced zygomatic bones, a steep, low forehead, a broad flat nose and a protruding jaw. The Sudetian type is dark-haired and dark-eyed. The exact referent of this category is uncertain, as its supposed feature combination is widely dispersed throughout central and eastern Europe, through the medium of several discrete racial types. Cf. Volgid.
SUDSINID
= South-Sinid, German spelling.
SUNDADONTY
Pertaining to the "Indian type" of teeth, as contrasted with sinodonty.
SUPERAURALE (sa)
The highest point on the superior border of the helix.
SUPERCILIARE (sci)
The highest point on the upper margin of the middle portion of the eyebrow.
SUPERCILIARY REGION
The browridge area, literally the region above the eyelids.
SUPERIOR (cranial)
Above or near the head.
SUPERIOR ORBITAL BREADTH (fz-g) (supraorbital half-breadth)
Measured on the right and left sides of the head using sliding calipers. Place the tip of the fixed arm at the frontozygomatic suture and slide the arm medially until it touchesglabella.
SUPERIOR ORBITAL CONTOUR AND SUPERIOR ORBITAL RIM CONTOURS (fz-g-fz)
Measured in relation to glabella and the frontozygomatici.
SUPERNASALE (spn)
A point on the median sagittal plane where the nose begins to project forward, as indicated by a change of direction of the profile.
SUPRA-
Prefix meaning above or over.
SUPRAMASTOID RIDGES (mastoid crests)
Bony crests above the mastoids, usually on the temporal bones alone, but extending in some cases onto the parietals.
SUPRAORBITAL ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-g-t)
Measured in relation to glabella and the tragia.
SUPRAORBITAL BREADTH (fz-fz)
Measured with spreading calipers. Place tips of the calipers at the right and left frontozygomaticus.
SUPRAORBITAL DEPTH (g-t)
Measured between glabella and tragion.
SUPRAORBITAL HALF-BREADTH
= superior orbital breadth.
SUPRAORBITAL REGION
The area of the frontal bone immediately above the orbits.
SUPRAORBITAL TORUS
An exaggerated form of browridge in which the prominence is continuous.
SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
The idea that those individuals in a species that have characteristics selected for by nature are biologically the most fit. They are the ones who more frequently survive to be the parents of the next generation. The fittest individuals are not necessarily the strongest, largest, quickest, or smartest. This concept was central to Charles Darwin's idea of natural selection.
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
The evolution of reproductively isolated populations (species) inhabiting the same geographical area.
SYMPLESIOMORPHY
The possession of a character state that is primitive (plesiomorphic) and shared between two or more taxa. Shared possession of a symplesiomorph character state is not evidence that the taxa in question are related.
SYNAPOMORPHY
The possession of apomorphic features by two or more taxa in common. If the two groups share a character state that is not the primitive one, it is plausible that they are related evolutionarily, and only synapomorphic character states can be used as evidence that taxa are related. Phylogenetic trees are built by discovering groups united by synapomorphies.
SYRID
In the typology of Lundman, a subvariety of Arabid, "with a lower frequency of blood type gene r."

T
TACHE NOIRE ("black spot")
Geographical area characterized by low stature, for whatever reason.
TACHYTELY
With reference to evolution, a word coined by G. G. Simpson and pertaining to a rapid rate of evolutionary change. Cf. bradytely, horotely.
TAIGID (Baikal)
Tungid subtype of the Tungus-speaking region of Siberia, between the Yenisei River and Chukotka-Kamchatka, and between the Arctic Ocean and China/Mongolia. Tungids are characterized by short stature, a pyknomorphic build, a maximal Mongolid facial structure, high frequency of epicanthus, a low and wide skull, a very high, wide and flat face,orthognathism, notable forward projection of malars, very little nasal projection, and thin lips. The hair is straight and soft, the eyes and hair are sometimes mixed rather than black, and the skin is very light, sometimes even approaching Northern European standards. Pilous development is scant. A lower-faced south Siberian Taigid subvariety may be distinguished among western Evenks and the Turkic-speaking Tuvans and Tofalars.

Evenk woman of
Taigid type
TASMANID
Frizzly-haired Australid subtype which, until the middle of the 19th Century, inhabited most of Tasmania. Tasmanids are considered extinct, however certain continental Australians claim direct descent from this population.

Tasmanid (Truganini,
"the last of the
Tasmanians"
TAURID
Europid parafamily, the result of a convergent evolutionary tendency, so named for the association of such features with the Taurus Mts. in Turkey. The chief Taurid strains areDinarid (Dinarid proper/Adriatid and Norid) and Armenoid (Armenid, Anatolid and Caucasid/Mtebid). The Taurid morphology is characterized by a particular set of features, most importantly moderately tall to tall stature, a short but rather narrow and planoccipital head, and a large, convex nose - the result of a process of dinaricization upon unrelated stocks, rather than of mutual origins. Central Asiatics Pamirids may be considered at least partially Taurid.
TAVASTID
According to Lundman’s typology, the westernmost of the two East-Baltid subtypes (the other being Savolaxid).
TAXON
Monophyletic group of organisms recognized as a formal unit, at any level of a hierarchic classification (pl. taxa).
TAXONOMY
The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.
TEMPERATE ASIATIC RACE
= Sinid and Tungid (“Neo-Mongolid”), in the typology of Agassiz.
TEMPORAL BONE
One of the two irregular bones on either side of the skull forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing; the temporal bones form the inferior sides of the cranium and part of the cranial floor.
TEUTONIC
= Nordid, in Ripley's early typology.
TEUTONORDID
= Hallstatt Nordid, in von Eickstedt's typology.
THOMSON-BUXTON'S RULE
The biological rule stating that populations living in a cold, dry environment tend to have smaller nasal indices (long and narrow noses), whereas populations living in warm, humid regions tend to have large nasal indices (broad and short noses).
TIBETID
= Qiangid.
TORUS
One of the several bony ridges or crests which may occur on the cranium.
TOTAL CRANIOFACIAL HEIGHT (v-gn)
Measured in the midline using double sliding calipers and a level.
TOTAL FACE HEIGHT (morphological face height) (n-gn)
= morphological face height.
TOTAL FACIAL INDEX
= facial index.
TRAGION (t)
Located at the notch above the tragus, where the upper edge of the cartilage disappears into the skin of the face.
TRAGUS
The small cartilaginous projection immediately in front of the external auditory canal.
TRANSVERSE PLANE (horizontal plane)
Divides the body into a superior (or upper) and an inferior (or lower) section.
TRICHION (tr)
The midpoint of the hairline.
TROPICAL ASIATIC RACE
= Paleo-Mongolid, in the typology of Agassiz.
TRØNDER
A special Scandinavian composite type, morphologically essentially Nordid (or Nordoid), and characterized by a certain amount of internal variation (cf. Hardanger type, Orkdal type,Valle type). The principal constituents are a tall, high-headed Corded variety, a local, mostly unreduced Cro-Magnid, and elements of Nordid proper (Hallstatt) as well as Borreby. SNPA account here.

Norwegian Trønder
(from The Races of
Europe by Carleton
S. Coon)
TUNGID (Kumid (Lundman))
One of the two basic Mongolid types of northern Asia, the other being Sinid. The Tungid is characterized by a wide face, high cephalic index, low height-length index, high subcutaneous fat ratios, extreme Mongolid features (with reference to the development of epicanthus, cheekbone morphology etc.) and moderately tall stature. Tungids are found in Siberia, Mongolia, and Turkestan, which are all Altaic-speaking territories. Subtypes: Amur-Sakhalinid, Taigid, Kumid.

Tungid (from the Fischer
Lexikon)
TURANID (Turko-Tatar type (Deniker))
Central Asiatic type, named (and later renamed) by Deniker (type touranien). In von Eickstedt's typology, Pamirids signify relatively unmixed Turanids, whereas Aralids are Turanids showing Mongolid influence of the Tungid variety. For some anthropologists, the term still applies in a less specific fashion to Europid-Mongolid mixed populations of Central Asia.
TURKO-TATAR TYPE (Race turko-tatar)
= Turanid, in Deniker's later typology.
TYDAL TYPE
A very tall, heavily pigmented Cro-Magnoid, aboriginal to the central Scandinavian regions. The Tydal type is robust, short-legged and long-armed, and very dolichocephalic (C.I.73). The face is moderately broad to broad, the chin is prominent, the forehead is low and rather steep, the browridges are strong and the nose is typically short, snubbed and rather wide. The hair is blackisk brown and the eyes rather dark, and beard growth is strong. The type was first observed in the Norwegian parish of Tydal in Trøndelag, and its presence was later documented in adjacent Swedish regions. In all likeliness this unique population has lived in isolation for millennia, but nowadays the type is dispersed all around the Scandinavian Peninsula as a result of increased mobility and city-ward migration, and is nowhere found in any significant concentration. The Tydal type is generally regarded as a Paleo-Atlantid variety.

Tydal types (from Lundman's Dalarnas
Folk - Typer och Härstamning (1948))
TYMPANIC PLATE
That portion of the temporal bone which forms the anterior border of the auditory opening, or bony ear hole.
TYPE (holotype; type specimen)
(1) A complete or incomplete specimen which serves as the base for the name of a taxon; (2) a single individual used to epitomize a sample.
TYPOLOGY
Classification according to hierarchically arranged sets of diagnostic criteria.

U
ULOTRICHI
One of the two “macroraces” of Huxley, including “Bushmen” (Khoisanids), “Negritos” (Negritids, excluding Andamanids), “Negroes” (Negrids), and “Mincopies” (Andamanids). Cf. Leiotrichi.
ULTRABRACHYCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 90.0 to 94.9; extremely round-/short-/broad-headed.
ULTRADOLICHOCEPHALIC
Possessing a cephalic index of 55.0 to 59.9; extremely long-/narrow-headed.
UP
= Upper Paleolithic.
UPPER CHEEK DEPTH
= orbito-tragial distance.
UPPER EYELID HEIGHT (os-ps)
Measured between orbitale and palpebrale superii.
UPPER FACE DEPTH (n-t)
Measured on the left and right sides of the face using spreading calipers. Place the anterior tip of the calipers at the nasion, and lightly touch the tragus with the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.
UPPER FACE HEIGHT (n-pr)
On the skull, the distance from nasion to prosthion; on the living, the distance from nasion to the lowest point on the gums between the two upper median incisors, corresponding as nearly as possible to the measurement on the skull. Measured with sliding calipers.
UPPER FACE INCLINATION (g-sn)
Measured in relation to glabella and subnasale.
UPPER FACIAL INDEX (U.F.I)
upper face height * 100
maximum facial breadth
According to Martin (1928):
U.F.I.        - 44.9 = hypereuryene (very long-/narrow-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 45.0 - 49.9 = euryene (short-/broad-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 50.0 - 54.9 = mesene (of moderate upper facial form)
U.F.I. 55.0 - 55.9 = leptene (long-/narrow-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 60.0 -        = hyperleptene (very long-/narrow-upper-faced)
UPPER LIP HEIGHT (sn-sto)
Measured between stomion and subnasale.
UPPER LIP INCLINATION (sn-ls)
Measured in relation to subnasale and labiale superius.
UPPER PALEOLITHIC (UP; archaic spelling: Upper Palaeolithic)
Any of the physical types of Homo sapiens known from the Upper Paleolithic period; sometimes used exclusively of Cro-Magnoids and their modern descendants.
UPPER THIRD FACE DEPTH (n-t)
Measured between nasion and tragion.
UPPER VERMILION HEIGHT (ls-sto)
Measured between stomion and labiale superius.
URALID
Sometimes used synonymously with Lappoid, sometimes with reference to other, slightly obscure Central Asian types.

V
VALLE TYPE
Cro-Magnid survival in Norway is principally associated with the inland mountain villages of the southwest. Valle is - or rather was - one such village isolate. The type in question is saliently Cro-Magnid in most features, whilst at the same time generally approaching a Nordid or Nordoid form (possibly through isolated gracilization alone). The Valle type may be considered the southwestern end-point of the Trønder gradient.

Valle type (from The
Races of Europe by
Carleton S. Coon)
VARIATION
Inherited differences between individuals; the basis of all evolutionary change.
VÄSTMANLAND TYPE
The Scandinavian variety of Dalo-Falid, in the typology of Lundman.
VEDDID (Dravidian (Deniker and others); Indo-Aboriginal; Weddid (German sp.))
Southeastern Asian racial type, considered a member of the greater "Australoid" group, however the relation to Australids is uncertain and provisional, and may be nothing but a shared retention of the generalized Pleistocene human morphology. Veddids are small-statured, gracile and stocky (pyknomorphic). The head is moderately low, and the face is roundish and euryprosopic and often characterized by strongly developed browridges. The nose is moderately broad, short and snub, with extended alae, and the mouth is "childlike", bending down at the corners. The skin tone varies between medium and very dark brown, the hair is wavy and black, and the eyes are brown. Veddids are most common in the forest mountains of India and the park jungles of Sri Lanka (the Gondid and Malid, incl. transitional Indo-Melanid and Melanid varieties); they constitute an important element in the population of the Indian Subcontinent. Their eastward distribution from India is characterized by a sliding transition to Paleo-Mongolids.

Veddid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)
VENTRAL
Relating to or situated on or close to the anterior aspect of the body.
VERTEX (v)
The highest single point on the midsagittal section of the skull when positioned in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane.
VISTULAN
In Deniker’s typology, a sub-variety of his Oriental type.
VOLGID
According to Lundman, a very small, dark, high-skulled and dolichocephalic type of eastern Russia; it is characterized by a broad, somewhat primitive face and a small, plump nose. According to Lundman, this type is also found westward to Bohemia, where it is known as the "Sudeten-race". The exact referent of this category is uncertain, as its supposed feature combination is widely dispersed throughout central and eastern Europe, through the medium of several discrete racial types. Cf. Sudetian type.
VOMER
A roughly triangular bone that forms the inferior and posterior of the nasal septum.
VON LUSCHAN CHROMATIC SCALE
A standard skin colour determination reference, used by such prominent anthropologists as Carleton S. Coon.

von Luschan scale
VORDERASIATISCHER TYPUS ("Hither-Asiatic type")
= Armenid, in the typology of Günther.

W
WALLOONS TYPE
Specific Borreby-Alpinid blended type associated with the Belgian Walloons.
WEDDID
= Veddid, German spelling.
WEST-ALPINID
= Alpinid, i.e. the western-central European variety, as opposed to Gorid; sometimes applies specifically to the French Alpinids.
WEST-BALTID
A largely unreduced, only slightly balticized Cro-Magnid (East-Cro-Magnid). It represents one endpoint of the "Baltid continuum", opposite to East-Baltid (or Lappoid, in a broader sense). It is found in the Baltics, and to a lesser extent in Scandinavia and northeastern Germany, and is transitional to Dalo-Falid and Borreby types.

West-Baltid (Valdas
Adamkus)
WESTERN AMERICAN TEMPERATE RACE
Roughly equivalent to Pacifid, in the typology of Agassiz.
WESTERN EUROPEAN
= (West-)Alpinid, in Deniker's typology.
WESTISCH ("Western")
= Mediterranid, in Günther's typology.
WEST-MEDITERRANEAN
= Gracile-Mediterranid, in Lundman's typology.
WEST-SIBIRID
Arctic Mongolid variety, characterized by a convex nose, a receding forehead and darker pigmentation as compared to surrounding groups. The West-Sibirid type approachedIndianid in several respects. It is found among peoples of West Siberia, e.g. Kets, Mansis, Nenets, Dolgans, and Nganasans. Cf. Sibirid, East-Sibirid.

West-Sibirid
WHITE RACE
= Europid, in Blumenbach's typology.

X
XANTHOCHROI
"Fair whites" of northern Europe, in Huxley's typology. They and the Melanochroi constitute the two main branches of the white ("Caucasic") race, according to his (rather outdated) system.

Y
YELLOW RACE
= Mongolid (excluding Indianid), in Blumenbach's typology.

Z
ZENTRALID
= Centralid, German spelling.
ZYGION (zy)
The most laterally positioned point on the zygomatic arches. The position of zygion is defined from the measurement of bizygomatic breadth.
ZYGOMATIC ARCH
The bony arch, formed of portions of the malar and temporal bones, which encloses the temporal muscles and serves as the upper attachment of the masseter.
ZYGOMATIC BONES (malars; cheekbones)
The triangular bones on either side of the face below the eyes. They form the prominences of the cheeks and part of the outer wall and floor of the orbits.
ZYGOMATIC PROCESS
The temporal and maxilla bones, which border on the zygomatic.